Language Disorders:from Infancy through Adolescence:

Listening, Speaking, Reading, Writing, and Communicating

Rhea Paul, PhD, CCC-SLPProfessor, Yale Child Study Center

New Haven, Connecticut

Courtenay F. Norbury, PhD

Senior Research Fellow Department of Psychology Royal Holloway University of London London,England

pages 611-621

other discourse genres

writing mechanics

basic-level writing instruction will undoubtedly include mechanics: spelling, punctuation, cap-italization, and handwriting.

there are three elements that should be part of any instructional program for these students:

explicit teaching of the step in the writing process(planning,composing,revising)

discussion of purpose and audiences for writing 

scaffolding and feedback on the quality of the writing product,not only from adults but also from peers

expository and argumentative texts

basic skill approaches to helping students:

modeling:the genre is introduced in the context of curriculum-related material.

joint construction:teachers and students work together to transform information students have collected(from libary and internet research,interviews,videos,field trips,etc.)into an essay.

independent construction:students are given a curriculum-related "writing prompt".

three parts that need to be present in making an effective argument:

claim:the basic assertion being made:e.g.,students should be allowed to choose their own clothing for school.

warrant:the prnciples that connect data to the claim:e.g.,uniforms don't make students behave better in school.

data:factual information that supports that warrant;e.g.,research shows no improvements in behavior or achievement in shcools that require uniforms.

the basic structure of the persuasive essay includes the following:

1.clear opening statement that expresses the argument,opinion,or position of the writer.

2.development of the argument by supplying three or more reasons,with data and warrants.

3.attempt to influence the audience's opinion by providing a statement of personal belief based on the argument made,a prediction based on these arguments,or a summary of the major ideas presented.

functional communication

conversation

seven crucial elements for social skills instruction:

1.introduction:tell the students about the skill,what they will learn and why it is important to them.have students share experiences related to the skill.

2.guide instruction:lay out the steps to be taught,define the skill and list the steps in involved in accomplishing it.

3.modeling:demonstrate with role-playing or audio or video recordings the skill to be learn.mo-del self-talk about thinking through how/when to apply the skill.

4.rehearsal:students describe verbally the sequence of actions involved in the skill and then role-play with a group of peers.

5.feedback:provide encouragement for the use of appropriate behaviors and ask students to describe the successful behavior they used;when giving corrective feedback use a positive,nonthreating tone and have students describes the appropriate behavior.

6.planning:have students discuss how/when/with whom they can use the new skill.encourage them to use the following formula to help plan futrue interactions:

stop:think before talking,use self-control strategies if necessary.

plot:plan ahead and brainstorm options before deciding what to say/do.

go:choose the best option from brainstorming and implement it.

so:evaluate.encourage students to ask themselves how it went,what they did well,what they might change next time.

generalization:encourage students to try their new skill at home with family or in class with friends,have them report back to the clinician to discuss the outcome,if more help is need-ed,the clinician can discreetly"sit in" on an integration in which the student used the skill with a peer,and give feedback.

program:the conversation can 

the program's basic sequence is as follows:

brainstorm a list of topics classmates might want to discuss

write each on a slip of paper

put slips in can

take turns pulling out a topic

start conversation:

think first:what should i say?

say two things about the topic

ask interlocutor a question about the topic

listen while interlocutor answers

conversational map(p.614)

teaching social skills" may not be sufficient to improve performance in students with pragmatic disorders;it is also necessary to increase their competence in understanding the thought processes involved in social understanding,which include theory of mind, executive functions,and memory,these capacities fall under the umbrella of social cognition,helping students develop these kinds of understanding involve thinking about others,planing,and self-regulation.

survival skills 

survival skills needed for family or independent living also can be addressed,here students would be given assinements to research nutrition and meal planning,consumer skills such as label reading and unit pricing,housing searches using ads for rental units,and similar topics.

all teenagers experience a wide range of strong emotions;they feel angry at adults who set limits on them,frustrated at their own limitations,anxious about what others think of them, and so on.

the ability to manage not only written language,but also other forms of information that are so prevalent in our digital society.

learning-strategies approaches to intervention in the advanced language stage(p.616)

seven steps to teaching self-regulated learning strategies

step 1:describe the strategy.

step2:activate and develop background knowledge.

step 3:discuss current performance level.

step 4:model the strategy and self-instructions.

step 5:collaborative practice.

step 6:independent practice and mastery.

step 7:generalization

semantics

learning new words

root word strategy,the clinician introduces a root word and helps students identify possible additions of inflectional endings and derivational suffixes and prefixes.

keyword method,to learn the new word,the students are told to do the following:

draw a picture that links the meaning of the keyword and the new word.

to learn the new word,the students is told to do the following:

say the new word and think of its keyword.

think of the picture with the keyword in it

remember the connection that symbolized the picture.

retrieve the meaning of the new word.

word retrieval

figurative language

three-step strategy for imporving figurative comprehension:

1.have the students identify figurative langauge in passages they read or hear.

2.for each expression they decide is not literal,students are encouraged to decide what the author is really trying to say.

3.finally,students are encouraged to activate everything they know about the words in the figurative expression to attempt to make a connection between the intended meaning and the surface form.

syntax

having students first find complex sentences within classroom literature selections,then underline each clause within the sentence,circle the conjunctions,and finally paraphrase the sentences.

pragmatics

classroom discourse

bookmark to support students' participation in reciprocal teaching(p.618)

predict:

question and connect

read and summarize

clarify

conversational discourse

graphic "think-sheet"for organizing a persuasive piece(p.620)

what do i want to argue for?

whom do i need to convince?

where and when will i make my argument?

what are the points i will make ?

first

next

third

then

finally

how will i sum up

other discourse genres

narrative text

comprehension

control of the difficulty of the material they must process,so that they persist longer in working on the task.

improving flency

have students read a passage themselves after hearing a skilled reader read it.

use communication sessions to revisit passages covered in class,reading the passages to students,then asking them to reread the passage aloud after hearing it,and following up the reading/rereading with an activity that target a specific strategy.

evidence-based strategies for improving reading comprehension in secondary students with LLD(p.620)

the following strategies should be used before,during,and after reading:

activating prior knowledge

predicting 

paraphrasing

summarizing 

self-questioning 

visualizing

using graphic organizers

comprehension monitoring 

think aloud strategy modeling by skilled readers

what i know or K-W-H-L

K stands for what you already KNOW about the subject

W stands for what you WANT to learn

H stands for figuring out HOW you can learn more about the topic

L stands for what you LEARN as you read