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7.1 Introduction
7.2 General discussion of principles, techniques and comparative approaches
-Review
-Basic principles
-Light phenomena
-Illumination
-Water as an optical medium
-Light detection
-Magnification and resolution
-Sources of variability
-Instrument effects
-Water medium
-Animal-dependent effects
-Classes of light microscopy
-Imaging
-Bright – field microscopy
-Contrast techniques
-Fluorescence microscopy
-Quantification
-Techniques
-Silhouette photography
-Optical plankton counting
-Video plankton recording
-Comparisons
-Identification
-Imaging versus quantification
-Venue and deployment
-Operating range of two systems
7.3 Measurement protocols, model computations and examples
-Silhouette photography in the laboratory
-Procedures
-Further processing of the film
-Optical plankton counter
-Calibration including comparisons
-Limitations
-Operating scenario
-Applications
-Video plankton recorder
-Calibration including comparisons
-Limitations
-Operating scenario
-Applications
7.4 Acknowledgements
7.5 Refrences
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Feeding mechanisms of zooplankton
8.3 Expression of zooplankton feeding rates and common conversion factors
-Clearance rate (F)
-Ingestion rate (I)
-Daily ration (DR)
-Conversion between units of mass and energy
8.4 Microzooplankton
-Methodological approaches
-Indirect methods to measure assemblage grazing
-Correlation of natural consumer-prey cycles
-Extrapolation of laboratory rates to the field
-The pigment budget
-Acid lysozyme assay
-Direct methods to measure per capita grazing rates
-Food tracers: inert particles
-Food tracers: prey cells
-Food tracers: radioisotopes
-Food vacuole contents
-Prey removal
-Direct methods to measure assemblage grazing rates
-Sea water dilution method
-Working procedures for the sea water dilution method
-Size fractionation method
-Metabolic inhibitor method
8.5 Meso- and macrozooplankton
-Empirical relationships
-Field investigations on gut fluorescence
-Sampling
-Preparation for analysis
-Gut clearance coefficient
-Sorting animals
-Extraction
-Pigment analysis
-Transformation to carbon
-Pigment destruction
-Working procedures for the gut fluorescence method
-Equipment
-Supplies
-Procedure
-Measurement and calculations
-Comments and special precautions
-Gut contents of field sampled consumers
-General procedures
-Special case: copepod mandibles in stomach contents
-Digestion
-Methods based on budgets of material or energy
-Growth
-Egestion
-Excretion
-Respiration
-Assimilation efficiency
-Measurement of assimilation efficiency: direct measurements
-Measurement of assimilation efficiency: indirect calculation
-Measurement of assimilation efficiency: ratio methods
-Non-homogeneous food material
-Food selectivity
-Sloppy feeding
-Losses from faecal material
-Absorbance of IT in the digestive tract
-Production of non faecal material mixed with faeces
-Ash-ratio method
-Chlorophyll –ratio method
-Silica-ratio method
-Radioisotope tracers
-Methodological comparisons
-Working procedure for laboratory experiments with radioisotopes
-Working procedure for field experiments
-Food removal methods
-Bottle effects during incubations
-Sloppy feeding
-Estimates of community grazing rate
-Working procedures with food removal methods
-Collection of zooplankton
-The food source
-Experiments
-Sub-sampling
-Microscopic examination of sub-samples
-Feeding rate calculations
-Use of film and video to study feeding behaviour
-Biochemical indices
-Working procedures for measurement of digestive enzyme activity
-Amylase
-Trypsin
8.6 Difficulties with specific zooplankton groups
-Stomach contents from field samples
-Laboratory experiments
8.7 Omnivory
-A general method to estimate omnivory
-Collection of consumers
-Collection and handling of water
-Sample collection, processing and analysis
-Data analysis
-Gut fluorescence and experimental egg production
-Gut fluorescence and egestion rate
-A method to estimate the importance of copepod prey for predators
8.8 Factors regulating feeding rate
-Abundance of food items
-Functional response. Model I
-Functional response. Model II
-Functional response. Modified model II
-Functional response. Model III
-Design of functional response experiments
-Calculation curve fits in functional response experiments
-Size of food items
-Turbulence
-Consumer body size
-Palatability / toxicity of food organisms
-Physical environmental factors
-Temperature
-Light
-Spatial constraints
8.9 Predation behavioural models
8.10 Concluding remarks
8.11 Acknowledgments
8.12 References
9.1 Introduction: why to measure growth and reproductive rates of zooplankton ?
-Factors controlling the dynamics of copepod populations
-Variability in the production of the prey field for fish larvae
-The influence of food availability on growth and egg laying rates, including the linkage between copepod spawning and primary production cycles
-Evaluation of environmental impacts
-Estimation of secondary production
9.2 Models of growth and fecundity
-Physiological or laboratory – derived budgetary models
-Temperature – dependent empirical model
-Global model of in – situ weight – specific growth
9.3 Determination of egg production rate: broadcast spawning copepods
-The basic method
-Procedures: know your species
-Capture and handling
-Duration of incubation
-Incubation containers and density of females
-Temperature
-Light regime
-Food supply
-Statistical considerations
-Estimation of spawning frequency from preserved samples
-Egg viability
9.4 egg production rates of egg carrying copepods
-Egg ratio method
-Incubation method
9.5 The determination of growth rate
-Estimation of growth rate from preserved samples and demographic information
-Estimation of development time
-Estimation of mean weight
-Limitations and sources of error
-Direct measurements of growth rate
-The basic method
-Procedures
9.6 Biochemical and radiochemical methods
-Ratio of biochemical quantities
-Hormones and growth factors
-Enzyme activities
-Radiochemical methods
-In vitro incorporation
-In vivo uptake
-In vivo injection
-In vivo ingestion
9.7 Measurement of egg production rate of a marine planktonic copepod (Calanus finmarchicus)
-Facilities
-Equipment and supplies
-Procedures
-Capture
-Sorting the catch
-Incubation
-Data analysis
9.8 Direct determination of copepod molting and growth rates in the field
-Facilities and equipment
-Supplies
-Procedure
-“Artificial cohort method”
-“Sorting method”
-Data analysis and interpretation
-Molting rates
-Growth rates
-Notes and comments
-Creation of artificial cohorts: alternative techniques
-Changing the water
9.9 Acknowledgements
9.10 References
Review
10.1 Oxygen consumption as an index of metabolism
-Conversion of oxygen to carbon and calorific units
10.2 Nitrogen and phosphorous metabolism
10.3 Measuring metabolic rate on live zooplankton
-Technical problems
-Body size and temperature as bases of metabolic comparison
-Metabolic quotients
10.4 Metabolic rate and enzymatic indices
-ETS activity
-Enzymes of intermediary metabolism
-Potential sources of error
10.5 Concluding remarks
Practice
10.6 Collection and handling of zooplankton
10.7 Respiration
-Oxygen consumption – Winkler titration
-Oxygen consumption – electrodes
-Enzymatic method – electron transfer system
-Enzymatic method – lactate deshydrogenase and citrate synthase
10.8 Excretion
-Single end-point method
-Time course method
-Ammonia and inorganic phosphate analysis
10.9 References
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