博文
有感于《西部铁路华工南下德克萨斯》
||
有感于《西部铁路华工南下德克萨斯》
黄安年文 黄安年的博客/2018年2月3日发布
被封尘了一个半世纪的美国铁路华工话题，近年来开始为美国的学界和精英华人所关注，他（她）们开始挖掘美国图书和档案资料乃至文化遗存，从中披露反映铁路华工的情况日益增多，这是一种值得庆贺的现象。表明美国铁路华工话题开始进入美国华人知识界学术界的视角，他（她）们感悟到这个话题将成为揭示近代美中民间交往极其深远影响的重要节点。
从恢复历史本来面貌的角度看，厘清我几年前提出的二十个问题（见附文），今天看来仍然很有必要。这20个问题中的第16个是：“第一条太平洋铁路完成后,铁路华工到哪里去了？”
这是一个重要问题，1969年5月10日第一条太平洋铁路建成后，中国铁路华工的去向，既有回国和家人团聚，更有继续留在美国北上、东进、南下和在中央太平洋沿线滞留的，还有到加拿大参加兴建太平洋铁路的。如果完整厘清他们的走向移居影响，就是对厘清19世纪后期最大一波华人移民美国潮路线图的最大贡献。
这些美国铁路华工在那里，从那里来，为何而来；到那里去，最后在那里，为何在那里？这个路线图的厘清，仅仅靠美国学者（含少数美籍华人）的论著是远远不够的，他们的论著中至今所用的资料来源绝大部分是美国本土的英文的，来自中国的遗存资料和中国学者的研究成果极少涉及。而这个问题的全满答案唯有美国和中国政府间和民间的精神合作才行。这也是我多年来一直主张的。
举例来说，下面所附有《华洋史之“孤星”万里：西部铁路华工南下德克萨斯》一文中引书提到的“1869年11月，旧金山的劳工合同商周阿昌（Chew-Ah-Heung 暂译），与“休斯顿及德州”中央铁路公司（Houston and Texas Central (H&TC)Railroad，以下简称“休-德”）代理人约翰·沃克商谈一批中国劳工的合约。”，那么需要查证这位旧金山的劳工合同商周阿昌（Chew-Ah-Heung 暂译）最早是怎么从广东侨乡来到美国的，又是怎么混上了包工头（劳工合同商周）的？他是怎么招揽到华工来的等等。尤其是这个周阿昌（Chew-Ah-Heung 暂译）的家乡在那里，家乡的名字叫什么？在美国能搞清楚吗？
个案，碎片化研究会获得个案、碎片式研究成果，然而如果不加科学整合和深入，那么将永远停留在个案和碎片化阶段，无法恢复接近历史真相的全貌。
**********************
华洋史之“孤星”万里：西部铁路华工南下德克萨斯精选
已有 876 次阅读 2018-2-2 07:01 |
1869年下半年至1870年，是加州铁路华工历史上另一个漫长的冬季。
美国中南部的德克萨斯，曾经参与叛乱的“孤星”之地。1870年初重新回到联邦。
1870年时的美国交通，从旧金山到墨西哥湾北岸，经密西西比河水陆并用，约有万里之遥。
他们对这个州几乎一无所知，但他们还是到来了！在一个严酷的冬季，他们在德克萨斯州的加尔维斯顿（注：Galveston，位于休斯敦东南部﹑墨西哥湾岸边）走下了火车。这一天的日历记载着：1870年1月10日。
他们的人数有250人之多，几乎所有人的年龄都在25～30岁之间。他们几乎全部出生于中国南方沿海的广东，他们之中有几位少年、也有几位四十岁以上的人。其中还有一位步履蹒跚的女人，她的双脚与那个时代所有中国女人一样，用裹布包缠着的。
这批中国人刚刚帮助“中央太平洋”公司修建了第一条横贯大陆的铁路，他们是世界上最优秀的铁路建设者。他们一天可以铺没十英里铁轨，比预期提前七年完成了横贯铁路的修建工程。三年来，他们修建的铁路穿过内华达山脉坚硬的花岗岩；铁路也穿过高楼般的雪山。他们在攀登的雪山崩塌之后，被埋在了底下死去。他们与爱尔兰裔工人抗争，有时甚至以罢工来争取薪优和更好的工作条件。虽然“中央太平洋”铁路公司主管查尔斯·克罗克（注：Charles Crocker，中央太平洋铁路公司创建者）切断他们的食物供应并威胁换人，他们仍然争取到每日加薪两美元。
总而言之，参加修建“中央太平洋”铁路的11,000名华工中，由于恶劣天气、疾病和炸药爆炸造成了约1,200人死亡。而今晚到达德克萨斯州的这250名中国人，是那段最艰辛历程的幸存者。他们之中有着美国前所未有的最吃苦耐劳的人。
他们需要工作。1869年5月，当他们砸下第一条横贯大陆铁路的最后一英里道钉，把全国的铁路连接起来，加速了荒野西部开拓步伐之后。随之而来的，是接下来的几个月里，他们这些做出贡献的中国人失去了工作。成千上万的华工返回了旧金山-那个他们最初登上美国土地的地方。
1869年11月，旧金山的劳工合同商周阿昌（Chew-Ah-Heung 暂译），与“休斯顿及德州”中央铁路公司（Houston and Texas Central (H&TC)Railroad，以下简称“休-德”）代理人约翰·沃克商谈一批中国劳工的合约。“休-徳”中央铁路公司是德州第二大铁路公司和最重要的商业铁路线之一。1853年，休-德公司从休斯顿东南靠近墨西哥湾的布法罗贝尤（注：Buffalo Bayou，贯穿休斯顿的一条河流）开始修建铁路，至1870年1月，铁路向北通到布拉索斯河谷（注：Brazos River，位于德州东北部）的棉花种植园，催生了沿线城镇如米利肯﹑布里安及赫恩等的复苏。休-德铁路及时和经济地把棉花原料运输到加工厂和港口。中国劳工将要投入的修建，是在德克萨斯东北从布里蒙德到科西卡纳的乡村，把铁路向北穿过棉花区。
根据劳工合同商周阿昌与约翰•沃克的谈判协定，铁路华工们将为休-德公司工作3年；每月工作26天，每月薪金为20美元（银币）；周阿昌本人将担任华工团长和翻译，每月100美元（金币）。虽然这些华工在加利福尼亚也可以拿到相近数额的工资，但他们更希望在德克萨斯这样一个极少有亚裔涉足的州，开始一个新的生活。
这群约250人的华工队伍，是于1869年12月19日乘火车前往东南部的。由于一些原因，其中有7位“缺乏信心”的决定留在原地。这些华工们不知道在德克萨斯等待他们的将是什么。南方在四年前输掉了美国“内战”，现在想用中国人劳工作试验来代替奴隶劳动力。这些中国人会被当作奴隶对待吗？或者，南方会成为排华暴乱西部之外的一个避风港？很多中国人都做好了面对的准备，于是那7名退却者的名额又被更多的18人所补充。
东去的火车在爱奥瓦州的康西尔布拉夫斯（注：Council Bluffs，位于爱奥瓦州西南部密苏里河畔）停下来，华工们沿着断裂冰面上铺设的木板穿过冰冻的密苏里河。他们再乘坐“北密苏里”铁路线，于12月30日到达圣路易。从那里，华工们又乘坐“密西西比”蒸汽船沿密西西比河南下。他们在田纳西州的孟菲斯停了一天后，继续乘船一直南下至新奥尔良。他们住在一处仓库里，等待火车把他们送到伯威克湾（Berwick Bay），然后搭蒸汽船去往达加尔维斯敦。
当他们到达加尔维斯敦时，一位记者向他的读者们描述了这些“新来的德克萨斯人”。那时候，很多人从来没有遇到过中国人或亚洲人。
想一下昨天到来的这些人们，在船甲板上被困了多么长的时间。他们比较干净，身上的衣服也整洁，比预想的好多了。虽然他们身材较小，但很稳健。从处理随身重物品的轻松程度看，他们有力而灵活。
根据密苏里的《圣路易共和人》报道，这些华工每人轻松自如地扛着一根竿子，竿子的两端挂着重达150至200磅的私人物品。他们有着黑色的杏眼和橄榄色面容，皮肤淡白，透着桔黄与朱红的浅色（Houston Telegraph/休斯敦电讯 1870年1月6日）。
加尔维斯敦的记者继续写道：他们普遍穿着宽松的蓝棉布上衣。裤子也是同样的布料，但比起眼下时尚男士们喜爱的封闭式裤子更为宽大。他们的鞋做的像独木舟样子，脚指头处缩成尖状；他们的帽子如同倒置的洗脸盆；其中有一些人穿着靴子和宽松的外套，看起来穿得应该相当舒服。
在加尔维斯敦，如果看到新鲜的和意料之外的事物，他们对此通常不会有语言和动作的表达；即使被成群看热闹的陌生人包围在中央，他们仍然显得十分镇静。
他们到驻地后，开始准备做早餐。生着了火，取出水壶，每人手中拿着锅和碗。一切看起来那么系统化和条条有理。他们的基本食物是大米，我们注意到他们中有一些人把一小片片焦黄的猪肉放在米饭上。筷子是用来把食物送到他们口中的唯一工具。[ . . . ] 吃完早餐后，我们注意到他们大多人痛快地喝了很多蒸米剩下的热水。做饭结束后，他们小心地把剩余的木头收拾到一边。他们洗了碗和筷子，打包好锅和壶等 . . . 。然后点着一管烟，悠然地享受起来。他们之中有几个讲着英语，但并没有表现出想交流的意愿。
他们之中仅有一位女人，她身材矮小，外表毫不起眼。她的双脚因为长期缠包变得不成比例地小，但她走起路来很轻快的样子。（休斯敦电讯，1870年1月13日）
然后记者又描述了清朝时期特有男人理发方式：他们的头发从前额刮到头顶，剩余的头发能够长长并编成一个辫子。他们大多数人把辫子“整齐地编好，盘在头上，然后藏在帽子下面”。报道最后写道：昨天下午大约一点钟时，火车载着这批本州前所未有的黄皮肤人前往卡尔沃特（注：Calvert，城镇名，位于布拉索河东岸，重要的棉花产区）。这次的劳工替代试验是否成功，有相当大一部分德州人急切地关注着。（休斯敦电讯，1870年1月13日）
这批迁居到德克萨斯的250名中国劳工，可能让当时美国南部华人数量增加了一倍。根据美国的人口普查数据，1870年整个南部仅有217名中国人。其中有25人居住在德克萨斯州，98人居住在阿肯色州，71人居住在路易斯安那州，16人居住在密西西比州。接下来的几年里，以铁路华工为先驱，大约有1000-2000中国人移居到美国南部。
1870年初期时，在遥远西部诸州以东的各州，中国人的数量仍旧很小。这250名中国劳工作为移民开拓者，也是第一大批东迁的华工。随后的几个月和几年间，成千上万的中国人劳工跟随他们的步伐开始东迁。他们在东部﹑南部及中西部建立了很多中国人社区。
Resource/参考资源：
June 2003，Irwin A. Tang：Asian Texans: Our Histories and Our Lives
相关阅读（1）：《1870年西部华人东迁区域及交通》
相关阅读（2）：《密西西比三角洲中国人》
相关阅读（3）：《美国南方早期华人安葬选地》
转载本文请联系原作者获取授权，同时请注明本文来自代伟科学网博客。
链接地址：http://blog.sciencenet.cn/blog-1122825-1097901.html
再谈深度研究美国铁路华工的20个课题
黄安年年 黄安年的博客/2017年7月28日发布
2014年11月23日我发布博文《深度研究美国铁路华工的20个课题》。2015年9月我在和李炬合著的《沉默道钉的足迹》所写序中又重提了这20个课题。
在我看来，今天我们在宣传或者研究美国铁路华工问题时，围绕这20个课题，开展深度的个案的、合作的、协同的探寻和探究，依然是大有可为的，也是任重道远的。我们需要更多的志愿者、社会工作者、专业研究者投入针对这些课题的攻坚战中。
举例来说：
1，美国为何要兴建太平洋铁路？
这需要从多角度来解读这个问题，不是一个人因素促成的，而众多因素中，哪些更重要时需要深度研究。
2，中央太平洋铁路公司为何选择华工?
需要考察的是为何最初选择大批华工没有进入公司决策人的视线，是什么原因促成进入了他们的雇工视野并扩大使用？
3，华工何时参加兴建中央太平洋铁路?如何界定华工参加兴建中央太平洋铁路的时间?
这是一个重要问题，也关系到研究方法。目前没有材料肯定或否定1863年就没有华工参加修建太平洋铁路（即使一二个来自参与淘金热的华工）。我们确定华工参与的时间还是要以成批量为准较为稳妥。一开始就参加、1864年开始、1865年大批参加，三种说法哪个成立需要材料论证。
4，参与兴建中央太平洋铁路的华工从哪里来?广东五邑地区占多大比例?
一开始从广东来，还是从已经在美国西部从事淘金等工种的华工来？需要有材料说话。
5，这些华工以什么身份来美国？契约华工和自由移民所占的比例各有多少?
华工身份问题很重要，目前还需要透过大量海关等资料探寻他们的身份。然而从法理上说，美国早已禁止奴隶制度，美西地区和中国，姬1868年美中条约也不允许贩卖奴隶，除非贩卖非法移民。这样的问题不查清行吗？难道侨乡移民当时没有“美国梦”？
6，参与建设中央太平洋铁路的华工有多少人?各个年份的统计情况?
已有发掘的资料只能是局部和个别的，绝非整体，需要继续挖掘有完整统计数据作支持。
7，美国铁路华工承担了哪些工种，建设了那些最困难和最危险的施工地段？他们是怎样施工的?
8，他们的工作和生活待遇如何，和欧洲白人(如爱尔兰工人)有何不同？
9，在华工争取平等生活条件过程中发生了那些事件？
10，他们在美国的生活习俗如何？和白人社会如何交往？
上述问题，需要依靠更多遗址、遗物的发现和认定，需要查书询当时当地的报刊资料，专家研究的专著发现更多的线索。尤其是当年的照片，因为照片在当时难有作伪技术，可信度高。
11，有多少铁路华工死于兴建铁路过程中?
这是一个史实问题，迄今还是没有真正搞清楚。华工死亡数量不在少数，但是究竟多少要有人头依据，究竟多少人先后参加了修建太平洋铁路，因修建太平洋铁路死亡的有多少，其中因灾害死亡、因病死亡、因伤死亡情况何如？谁能厘清？
出于宣传流传所谓“每根枕木下都有一具华工尸骨”，并不靠谱，给人以假新闻之感。如李炬所说：“每英里有500根枕木，共690英里，345000根枕木！”“总共几万华工成三价铁路建设，却死了数十万”？所以在死亡人数上要实事求是，不要追求越多越好，才有宣传效果。历史研究追求一个真字。
12，他们的遗骸是怎样处理的？墓地在哪里？先友的遗骸是怎样运回国内的？
这样的问题不查清无法给铁路华工后裔作出交代，但是要查清非要下死功夫不行，由于华工的中文姓名到美国改用英文名，葬在美国的亡者难以找到对应的中文姓名，加上非正常死亡、家族变故等原因，葬在美国或者遗骸带回美国认领的难度加大。这些已有墓地，尚待发现的墓地，厘清死者的身份需要花费的时间和精力可以想象，万事开头难，开始了，就有希望，不动手就永远没有希望了！
13，美国铁路华工在美国家庭生活怎样?他们和国内家人是如何联系的？迄今发现家信情况?
迄今已有大量的银信在广东、福建侨乡发现，但是在当年修太平洋铁路时的银信尚未看到，这并不等于没有，需要继续发现，尽管如此我们还是可以通过后期的书信看到当年太平洋两岸家人书信交流的蛛丝马迹。
14，迄今确定的铁路华工的姓名有哪些？为何难以发现他们的姓名?
美国铁路华工作为一个群体是沉默的底层，也许包工头就是他们的代言人和保护人，凡是有当年华人尤其是铁路华工真名实姓的都是珍贵资料，这里包含照片、报刊报导的人名、公司账本等资料中的华人姓名，家谱中查出的在美国的华人等。
15，1869年5月10日太平洋铁路合拢时，为何有关华工在场的看法不一?
需要厘清合拢时、合拢合影时、合拢庆典时，华工是否在场的不同场景。
16，第一条太平洋铁路完成后,铁路华工分别到哪里去了？
铁路华工时公司雇佣的临时工、季节工，属于公司聘任的正式职务各有多少时首先需要厘清的问题。随着1869年铁路的建成和1873年美国经济危机的蔓延。铁路华工除需要查清的回国人数外，他们以及继续来到美国的华工到那里去继续寻找信工作了？哪些人去加拿大？哪些人去加州和美国南部？那些人留在西部？哪些人去美国中部和美东地区，例如大体沿着铁路线去堪萨斯州圣路易斯、宾州、马萨诸塞州北亚当斯、新泽西州、纽约州等地，干何种业务，塔恩的集聚区和日后的唐人街有和关联？
17，1882年排华法令前后,美国铁路华工的遭遇如何？
这方面已经有大量排华反华丑华漫画披露，估计地方报刊还会有继续披露，好在没有已经有19世纪中期看·报刊的数据库可供查询。此外对于哪些排华案件需要逐一查清。
18，如今我们找到了多少铁路华工的后裔？确切名单有哪些？
铁路华工和华工后裔的确切名单十分珍贵。点滴积累，调查落实确定，不能确定存疑继续调查。迄今我们已经知悉的名单包括在美国的不及百十人，联络到他们的后裔和家人至关重要。
19，我们的方志和古籍及政府文献是怎样记载铁路华工的？为何直接谈到的很少？
20，迄今发现了哪些涉及铁路华工的族谱、家谱、村志？
方志、族谱、家谱、村志时中国史籍的重要成果和特色。不仅需要普查国内的，而且需要普查海外的。还要联系遗址遗物，口述史料等靠考察。
如果列为注意到上面例举的问题，相信会得出我们需要继续攻关的必要性和紧迫感。这件事情，需要大家来做，大家来做这件事，为国家、为华裔社会、为铁路华工家族、也为厘清被封存了一个半世纪之久的历史真相，为美中文化和建设交流作出了历史贡献的沉默道钉们的真相，我们难道不需要继续努力吗？
笔者一直主张信守规矩，资源共享。让沉默道钉进入更多人的视野，让更多人参加探寻沉默道钉真相的行列，大家都来关注和必要的参与，到2019年5月10日纪念建成第一条太平洋铁路时，相信会涌现一批新成果的。
***************
《沉默道钉的足迹》序中提出的20个课题(2015年版)
本书着力于探寻和突破美国铁路华工研究上的难点、疑点、重点。全书四部分内容试图集中在以下20个课题上用图文形式作初步解读，提供了我们的思路供读者和研究者参考。
1，美国为何要兴建太平洋铁路？
2，中央太平洋铁路公司为何选择华工?
3，华工何时参加兴建中央太平洋铁路?如何界定华工参加兴建中央太平洋铁路的时间?
4，参与兴建中央太平洋铁路的华工从哪里来?广东五邑地区占多大比例?
5，这些华工以什么身份来美国？契约华工和自由移民所占的比例各有多少?
6，参与建设中央太平洋铁路的华工有多少人?各个年份的统计情况?
7，美国铁路华工承担了哪些工种，建设了那些最困难和最危险的施工地段？他们是怎样施工的?
8，他们的工作和生活待遇如何，和欧洲白人(如爱尔兰工人)有何不同？
9，在华工争取平等生活条件过程中发生了那些事件？
10，他们在美国的生活习俗如何？和白人社会如何交往？
11，有多少铁路华工死于兴建铁路过程中?
12，他们的遗骸是怎样处理的？墓地在哪里？先友的遗骸是怎样运回国内的？
13，美国铁路华工在美国家庭生活怎样?他们和国内家人是如何联系的？迄今发现家信情况?
14，迄今确定的铁路华工的姓名有哪些？为何难以发现他们的姓名?
15，1869年5月10日太平洋铁路合拢时，为何有关华工在场的看法不一?
16，第一条太平洋铁路完成后,铁路华工分别到哪里去了？
17，1882年排华法令前后,美国铁路华工的遭遇如何？
18，如今我们找到了多少铁路华工的后裔？确切名单有哪些？
19，我们的方志和古籍及政府文献是怎样记载铁路华工的？为何直接谈到的很少？
20，迄今发现了哪些涉及铁路华工的族谱、家谱、村志？
****************8
深度研究美国铁路华工的20个课题
黄安年文 黄安年的博客/2014年11月23日发布
为了突破在美国铁路华工研究上的难点、疑点、重点，我以为需要在以下20个课题上多下功夫：
1，美国为何要兴建太平洋铁路？
2，中央太平洋铁路公司为何选择华工?
3，华工何时参加兴建中央太平洋铁路?如何界定华工参加兴建中央太平洋铁路的时间?
4，参与兴建中央太平洋铁路的华工从哪里来?广东五邑地区占多大比例?
5，这些华工以什么身份来美国？契约华工和自由移民所占的比例各有多少?
6，参与建设中央太平洋铁路的华工有多少人?各个年份的统计情况?
7，这些华工承担了哪些工种，建设了那些最困难和最危险的施工地段？是怎样施工的?
8，他们的待遇如何，和欧洲白人(如爱尔兰工人)有何不同？
9，在华工争取平等生活条件过程中发生了那些事件？（如1867年6月25日罢工）
10，他们的生活习俗如何？和白人社会如何交往？
11，有多少华工死于兴建铁路过程中?
12，他们的遗骸是怎样处理的？墓地在哪里？有些先友的遗骸是怎样运回国内的？
13，美国铁路华工在美国有无家庭生活?和国内家人是如何保持联系的？为何迄今没有发现家信？
14，迄今确定的铁路华工的名字有哪些？为何难以发现他们的名字?
15，1869年5月10日太平洋铁路合拢时，铁路华工在哪里？为何报道甚少?
16，第一条太平洋铁路完成后,铁路华工到哪里去了？
17，1882年排华法令前后,美国铁路华工的遭遇？
18，如今我们找到了多少铁路华工的后裔？
19，我们的方志和古籍及政府文献是怎样记载铁路华工的？
20，迄今发现了哪些涉及铁路华工的族谱、家谱、村志？
下面是斯坦福大学北美华工铁路网站提出的13个问题
FAQs
CPRR FAQS (Frequently Asked Questions)
1，How manyChineseworked on the first transcontinentalrailroad?
The precise number of Chinese whoworkedon the railroadfrom 1864 to 1869 is not clear; records are incompleteandinexact. Therailroad did not list most individual Chinese workers by nameintheir payrollrecords, and instead listed headmen of work crews orlaborcontractors whodistributed pay to the individuals on the crew. In January1864,the CentralPacific hired a crew of 21 Chinese workers and hired moreduringthat year. InJanuary 1865, convinced that Chinese workers were capable,therailroad hiredfifty Chinese workers and shortly after fifty more. Butthedemand for laborincreased, and white workers were reluctant to do suchbackbreaking,hazardouswork. As Leland Stanford reported to Congress in 1865,“A largemajority of thewhite laboring class on the Pacific Coastfind mostprofitable andcongenial employment in mining and agriculturalpursuits, thanin railroad work.The greater portion of the laborers employed byus areChinese, who constitute alarge element of the population of California.Without themit would beimpossible to complete the western portion of this greatnationalenterprise,within the time required by the Acts of Congress.”
Soon the Chinese labor poolfromCaliforniawas exhausted, and the Central Pacific arranged withlaborcontractors toimport large numbers of Chinese workers directly from
2，When were theyhiredto work on the railroad?
Chinese worked on shorter railroadlinesbeforeconstruction of the transcontinental, such as the San Francisco and San JoseRailroadCompany(now known as CalTrain) completed in 1863. Some Chinese beganworking ontheCentral Pacific as early as January 1864, and Director CharlesCrockerandConstruction Superintendent James Strobridge were convinced inJanuary 1865tohire large numbers of Chinese laborers for the workforce. Soonafter,theCentral Pacific Railroad arranged with labor contractors to recruitlargenumbersof workers directly from
3，Where didtheChinese workers come from?
Railroad workers recruited bylaborcontractors camemostly from Guangdong (Canton) province, especially Siyi (四邑Sze Yap, meaningfour counties: Taishan台山, Kaiping开平, Xinhui新会 and Enping恩平). These counties suffered fromextreme povertyandcivil unrest, and the area was close to Hong Kongas a point of departure.Desperate for work, workers fromthis part of Guangdongboarded ships for Californiaand otherparts to support theirfamilies.
4，What weretheChinese workers paid in comparison toworkers of European descent?
Chinese workers were initially paid 24to24to 31 per month,although rates would vary depending onhow skilled ordangerous the work. Forexample, those who worked in the tunnelswere paid anextra 1permonth.Theirpayeventuallyroseto1permonth.Theirpayeventuallyroseto 35 per day, which wasroughly the same as for workersof Europeandescent. However, Chinese workersworked longer hours and had topay theirheadmen or contractors for their ownlodging and food and even fortheir tools;on the other hand, the Central Pacificand Union Pacific providedwhite workersaccommodations, food, and tools withoutadditional cost.Alexander Saxton, in“The Army of Canton in the High Sierra,”calculates thatChinese labor cost therailroad companies two thirds of what waspaid to whiteworkers.
5，What werethehardest and most hazardous parts of therailroad route for them to build?
Bloomer Cut
In early 1864 workers began blastinganddigging throughsteep terrain on the Bloomer Ranch near Auburn, California,tocreate a levelgrade for tracks. Bloomer Cut, 38 miles from Sacramento, was 800 feet long and 63feethigh,and workers dug a trough through naturally cemented gravel and hardclaywithpicks, shovels and black powder. This was the first majorengineeringchallengefor the railroad, and it was dangerous work. In January1864, theCentral Pacifichired a crew of 21 Chinese workers and hired moreduring thatyear, with at leastsome working at Bloomer Cut. A larger numberworked thereby the time Bloomer Cutwas completed in March 1865.
Cape Horn
In summer 1865 construction began onCapeHorn (namedafter the treacherous route for ships sailing around the tip ofSouthAmerica) and completed a year later.This was athree-mile roadbed curving alongsteep terrain of the Sierra Nevadaat least1300 feet high above the AmericanRiver east of Colfax.Work requiredgrading, leveling and clearing trees, stumps,rocks and otherobstructions alongan irregular slope dropping off between 45 and75 degrees.Hundreds of kegs ofblack blasting powder were used to form a ledgefrom whicha level roadbed couldbe laid. There are conflicting reports on howthe workwas carried out,including the belief that Chinese workers were lowereddowncliffs in baskets toplant charges (see below).
Tunnels
In fall 1865 Chinese workersbeganbuilding 15 tunnels,most of them at high elevations through theSierraNevadafor a total of 6,213 feet. Historians agree that the mostdifficulttunnel wasNo. 6, the Summit Tunnel, cut through solid granite, 1,695feet longand 124feet below the surface. Progress was very slow, with many kegsof blackpowderused each day, but to little effect in the hard rock.Nitroglycerine wasmixedon site by a chemist, but it was too unstable, causingmanyaccidentalexplosions, and its use was abandoned. Workers built a verticalshafthalfwaybetween the two tunnel openings, and in shifts around the clockthey dugfourfaces simultaneously, from both exterior sides and from insideout.Workcontinued through two of the worst winters on record. Snowfromfierceblizzards often blocked tunnel entrances, and avalanches would sweepawaycampsof Chinese workers, carrying many to their death. The SummitTunnelwascompleted, graded and track laid on November 30, 1867. Because oftheseverewinter storms, the Central Pacific built 37 miles of snow sheds tocoverthetracks in 1868 and 1869. The snow sheds were nicknamed the “longestbarn intheworld.”
Ten Miles in One Day
On April 28, 1869 ten miles andfifty-sixfeet of trackwas laid in one day. The accomplishment was in response toa$10,000 wagerCharles Crocker made with Thomas Durant of the Union Pacificthathis workerswere capable of doing what seemed impossible. A squad ofeightIrishrail-handlers and a small army of 4000 workers, mostlyChinese,accomplishedthe feat, working between 5 a.m.and7 p.m., with a mid-day break after laying six miles oftrack. In the end25,800ties, 3,520 rails (averaging 560 lbs.each), 55,080 spikes, 14,050 bolts, andothermaterials, totaling in weight4,462,000 pounds, were laid down.
The teamwork that went into layingtenmiles plus oftrack in one day was tremendous. It was likeachoreographerorchestrating a complex dance sequence. Everyone movedwitha rhythm. Theaccomplishment has not been matched even in modern times.
The names of the eight Irish workerswererecorded by therailroad, and they were hailed in a parade in Sacramento. None of theChinese workers’nameswere recorded; they were forgotten so they remainnameless.
6，How manyChineseworkers died building thetranscontinental railroad?
The Central Pacific did not keeprecordsof the deaths ofany workers on the railroad. Some historians estimatefromengineering reports,newspaper articles and other sources that between 50 to150Chinese were killedas a result of snow slides, landslides, explosions,fallsand other accidents.Chinese practice was to bury the deceased temporarilyandat a later datecollect the remains in a box in a ritual fashion. Theboneswould then beshipped back to Chinato be reburied in the worker’s homevillage.One newspaper article entitled“Bones in Transit” of June 30, 1870 intheSacramento Reporter reported that “about 20,000 pounds ofbones” dugup from shallowgraves were taken by train for return to China,calculatingthat this amounted to1,200 Chinese. Another article published onthe same dayin the Sacramento Unionstatedthat only the bones of about 50 Chinesewere on the train. Others believethatsome Chinese must have also died in asmallpox outbreak among railroadworkers,although there are no records if anyof the dead were Chinese. Inaddition,there were reports of Chinese workersbeing killed in Nevadaas theresult ofIndian raids. Charles Crocker, testifying before Congressafter theline wascompleted, acknowledged that a great many men were lostduringconstruction –and most of those workers were Chinese.
7，What happened inthe1867 strike?
On June 25, 1867 Chinese workers wentonstrike. Fivethousand workers grading along the eastern slope of theSierrabetween Ciscoand Strong’s Canyon and digging tunnels put their tools downandreturned totheir camps. When Chinese workers were first hired in 1864theyearned 25perday,butthenwageswereraisedagain.InSpring1867CharlesCrockerraisedtheirwagesfrom25perday,butthenwageswereraisedagain.InSpring1867CharlesCrockerraisedtheirwagesfrom31 to 35permonth;buttheworkersdemanded35permonth;buttheworkersdemanded 40 per month,reduced workdays from elevento ten hours, and shortershifts digging in thecramped, dangerous tunnels.Shifts were supposed to beeight hours in thetunnels, but they were often forcedto work longer. As theSacramentoUnion reported, theworkers protested“the rightof the overseers of the company to either whip themor restrain themfrom leavingthe road when they desire to seek otheremployment.”
Crocker recalled that, “If there hadbeenthat number ofwhite laborers [on strike] … it would have been impossibletocontrol them. Butthis strike of the Chinese was just like Sunday all alongthework. These menstayed in their camps. That is, they would come out andwalkaround, but not aword was said. No violence was perpetrated along thewholeline.” Despite theirnon-violent tactic, the strike posed a mortal threattoCrocker, Stanford andthe other railroad “Associates” who receivedgovernmentsubsidies based on themiles of track laid. “The truth is they aregettingsmart,” Charles’ brother E.B. Crocker wrote, observing that the Chinesewereaware of the scarcity oflabor and therefore of their own leverage tobargain.E. B. Crocker and MarkHopkins considered taking advantage of the newlycreatedFreedmen’s Bureau tohire recently freed slaves as strikebreakers. Hopkins reasoned, “ANegrolabor force wouldtend to keep the Chinese steady, as the Chinese havekept theIrishmen quiet.”
Charles Crocker cut off food andothersupplies. Aftereight days of increasing privation, Crocker confrontedthestarving workers,along with James Strobridge, the local Sherriff andacontingent of deputizedwhite men, insisting that he would make noconcessionsand threatened violenceto anyone preventing workers from returningto the job.Facing starvation andcoercion, the workers ended the strike. CharlesCrockerbecame convinced thatthe labor action was a plot by the Union Pacific,whichaimed to sabotage theCentral Pacific’s forward progress in their race togainmore miles forsubsidies. He never considered that the Chinese workerswerecapable ofasserting their own interests.
8，What isthecontroversy over whether Chinese workers werelowered in baskets toplaceexplosive charges at Cape Horn?
Debate has been furious amongrailroadenthusiasts andhistorians on the use of baskets at Cape Horn.Manyaccounts,starting in the early twentieth century, told of Chineseworkershanging oversheer precipices in straw baskets to chip away holesforexplosives. Once theylit the fuse, they signaled to be hastily drawn uptoavoid the blast, a veryrisky operation, and many would lose their lives ifthebasket was not drawn upfast enough. In some accounts Chinese workersrequestedto weave the baskets,explaining that they were already skilled doingsuch workalong the Yangtze River. The imagehas beenpowerful of Chineseworkers hanging from baskets to do such hazardouswork, andthe depiction of workersin baskets along cliffs has appeared in manygraphicimages and literaryrepresentations, as well as histories.
However, other historians point outthatthere were noreports from engineers, no reports by ConstructionSuperintendentJamesStrobridge, no newspaper accounts, and no photographs ofbaskets beingusedduring construction at Cape Horn. Inthisview, the use ofbaskets is an exaggeration, a legend that has expandedovertime with each newversion of the story. An 1869 article in The OverlandMonthlybased on witnessesdescribed how workers“were suspended by ropesfrom above, the chain-bearerssignaling to thoseholding the ropes, up anddown, forward or back.” One accountdescribed howworkers sat on boatswain’s(or boson’s) chairs, flat seats of wovenropes likeswings. They were then letdown to prepare for drilling and blasting.The slopewas not a sheer cliff buta drop between 45 and 75 degrees, so laboringinbaskets could have actuallyhindered work, since no one would be able to usehisfeet to maneuver.
Researchers in Chinapoint out,however,that the laborers from Guangdongwould have much experience working atgreatheights for building roads andstructures along the Yangtze river, as well asclimbing tall trees to gather delicaciesforcooking. The workers, therefore,would have had no problem hanging by ropesandbaskets during construction, soit’s plausible that some baskets could havebeenemployed. Whether hung in basketsor by rope, there is no question theChineseworkers undertook an arduous anddangerous task of cutting throughsteepterrain.
9，Were theworkersliterate, and did they send letters backto China?
Since the workers came fromtheagricultural region of Guangdong,itisgenerally believed that most were illiterate farmers. To be literateinChinaat that time involved being conversant with Chinese classical texts,andbythat definition, almost all of the workers were not literate. However,bythecommonly accepted American definition of literacy – being able toreadandwrite – a number may, in fact, have been literate. Evidencesuggests,however,that at least some of the workers were educated; certainly,the headmenandagents for labor contractors could speak English and tallyaccounts, andatleast one labor contractor had apparently passed the lower levelofthemandarin civil service exams. Mark Twain, writing about the 1860s about Virginia City, Nevada,observedinRoughing It that theChinese “can read, write and cipherwith easy facility.” Sofar, though, noletter or document of any sort writtenby one of the CentralPacific workers hasbeen found. Chinese who worked onother lines after the firsttranscontinental,such as the Southern Pacific,have left some documents.
10，Why has no letterorjournal from a worker been foundyet?
Guangdong suffered from rebellions,civilconflict,bandits and warlords in the mid-nineteenth century, so ifletters ordocumentswere sent to families back home they may have beendestroyed in thechaos. Also,families may not have regarded the letters asimportant, sincetheir fathers andsons were merely lowly laborers. As well, thefamilies maynot have been able topreserve them in the subsequent 150 years ofinvasions,famine and social unrest.Finally, no exhaustive search for suchprimarydocuments has been conducted untilnow, so there may yet bepossiblediscoveries.
11，Why do we notknowmany of their names?
Chinese naming practices requiredthreenames. First wasthe family name for a male, followed by a middle namethatindicates theperson’s village and generation, and lastly the given name,oftenwith symbolicor aspirational meaning. English speakers found Chinese namesverydifficult tounderstand, and they are listed in payroll records andnewspaperarticles insimplified forms or what could be described as nicknames,such as AhFong, AhChung and Ah Lim, with “Ah” serving as a designation lessformal than“Mister.”Consequently, we have very few actual names, making it verydifficultto trackdown the actual workers. We have been collecting names fromoralhistoryinterviews of descendants and other sources, and we hope to obtainmore.
12，What kind offooddid they eat?
The workers insisted on eatingChinesefood: rice, driedvegetables, dried oysters, dried abalone fish, and someporkand poultry. Muchof these foodstuffs came from Californiasources, such asfreshvegetables. They also drank tea and hot water withoccasional wine andopium.The Irish or white workers were fed mainly meat andpotatoes along withwhiskey.The Chinese diet and especially the use of boiledwater reduced theoutbreak ofdysentery and other diseases. In order to providefood for theworkers, theCentral Pacific made an arrangement with one of thelaborcontractors, Sisson,Wallace & Company, who had exclusive right tosell foodand other suppliesto the Chinese workers. As they work moved throughNevada,theCentral Pacifichad two train cars labeled “ChinaStore,” from whichgoodscould be purchased. Because the demand for tea was sohigh, thecontractordecided to bypass the middlemen and had their agents intheir HongKong officepurchase the tea directly from growers in China. Food wassoimportant thatthe Chinese cooks were paid more than unskilled workers.Inaddition, Chinesein their contracts insisted that a Chinese physician be inthevicinity.
13，What didtherailroad workers do after the CentralPacific Railroad was completed?
Upon completion of the railroad,someworkers went backto
http://web.stanford.edu/group/chineserailroad/cgi-bin/wordpress/faqs/
转载本文请联系原作者获取授权，同时请注明本文来自黄安年科学网博客。
链接地址：http://blog.sciencenet.cn/blog-415-845506.html
转载本文请联系原作者获取授权，同时请注明本文来自黄安年科学网博客。
链接地址：http://blog.sciencenet.cn/blog-415-1068439.html
https://blog.sciencenet.cn/blog-415-1098253.html
上一篇：我就读第一所学校是上海善导女子中小学
下一篇：感谢赵铁骑、曹宁夫妇专程来访
