再谈深度研究美国铁路华工的20个课题

黄安年年  黄安年的博客/2017年7月28日发布

 2014年11月23日我发布博文《深度研究美国铁路华工的20个课题》。2015年9月我在和李炬合著的《沉默道钉的足迹》所写序中又重提了这20个课题。

在我看来，今天我们在宣传或者研究美国铁路华工问题时，围绕这20个课题，开展深度的个案的、合作的、协同的探寻和探究，依然是大有可为的，也是任重道远的。我们需要更多的志愿者、社会工作者、专业研究者投入针对这些课题的攻坚战中。

举例来说：

1，美国为何要兴建太平洋铁路？

  这需要从多角度来解读这个问题，不是一个人因素促成的，而众多因素中，哪些更重要时需要深度研究。

2，中央太平洋铁路公司为何选择华工?

  需要考察的是为何最初选择大批华工没有进入公司决策人的视线，是什么原因促成进入了他们的雇工视野并扩大使用？

3，华工何时参加兴建中央太平洋铁路?如何界定华工参加兴建中央太平洋铁路的时间?

  这是一个重要问题，也关系到研究方法。目前没有材料肯定或否定1863年就没有华工参加修建太平洋铁路（即使一二个来自参与淘金热的华工）。我们确定华工参与的时间还是要以成批量为准较为稳妥。一开始就参加、1864年开始、1865年大批参加，三种说法哪个成立需要材料论证。

4，参与兴建中央太平洋铁路的华工从哪里来?广东五邑地区占多大比例?

  一开始从广东来，还是从已经在美国西部从事淘金等工种的华工来？需要有材料说话。

5，这些华工以什么身份来美国？契约华工和自由移民所占的比例各有多少?

  华工身份问题很重要，目前还需要透过大量海关等资料探寻他们的身份。然而从法理上说，美国早已禁止奴隶制度，美西地区和中国，姬1868年美中条约也不允许贩卖奴隶，除非贩卖非法移民。这样的问题不查清行吗？难道侨乡移民当时没有“美国梦”？

6，参与建设中央太平洋铁路的华工有多少人?各个年份的统计情况?

  已有发掘的资料只能是局部和个别的，绝非整体，需要继续挖掘有完整统计数据作支持。

7，美国铁路华工承担了哪些工种，建设了那些最困难和最危险的施工地段？他们是怎样施工的?

8，他们的工作和生活待遇如何，和欧洲白人(如爱尔兰工人)有何不同？

9，在华工争取平等生活条件过程中发生了那些事件？

10，他们在美国的生活习俗如何？和白人社会如何交往？

上述问题，需要依靠更多遗址、遗物的发现和认定，需要查书询当时当地的报刊资料，专家研究的专著发现更多的线索。尤其是当年的照片，因为照片在当时难有作伪技术，可信度高。

11，有多少铁路华工死于兴建铁路过程中?

这是一个史实问题，迄今还是没有真正搞清楚。华工死亡数量不在少数，但是究竟多少要有人头依据，究竟多少人先后参加了修建太平洋铁路，因修建太平洋铁路死亡的有多少，其中因灾害死亡、因病死亡、因伤死亡情况何如？谁能厘清？

出于宣传流传所谓“每根枕木下都有一具华工尸骨”，并不靠谱，给人以假新闻之感。如李炬所说：“每英里有500根枕木，共690英里，345000根枕木！”“总共几万华工成三价铁路建设，却死了数十万”？所以在死亡人数上要实事求是，不要追求越多越好，才有宣传效果。历史研究追求一个真字。

12，他们的遗骸是怎样处理的？墓地在哪里？先友的遗骸是怎样运回国内的？

  这样的问题不查清无法给铁路华工后裔作出交代，但是要查清非要下死功夫不行，由于华工的中文姓名到美国改用英文名，葬在美国的亡者难以找到对应的中文姓名，加上非正常死亡、家族变故等原因，葬在美国或者遗骸带回美国认领的难度加大。这些已有墓地，尚待发现的墓地，厘清死者的身份需要花费的时间和精力可以想象，万事开头难，开始了，就有希望，不动手就永远没有希望了！

13，美国铁路华工在美国家庭生活怎样?他们和国内家人是如何联系的？迄今发现家信情况?

迄今已有大量的银信在广东、福建侨乡发现，但是在当年修太平洋铁路时的银信尚未看到，这并不等于没有，需要继续发现，尽管如此我们还是可以通过后期的书信看到当年太平洋两岸家人书信交流的蛛丝马迹。

14，迄今确定的铁路华工的姓名有哪些？为何难以发现他们的姓名?

  美国铁路华工作为一个群体是沉默的底层，也许包工头就是他们的代言人和保护人，凡是有当年华人尤其是铁路华工真名实姓的都是珍贵资料，这里包含照片、报刊报导的人名、公司账本等资料中的华人姓名，家谱中查出的在美国的华人等。

15，1869年5月10日太平洋铁路合拢时，为何有关华工在场的看法不一?

  需要厘清合拢时、合拢合影时、合拢庆典时，华工是否在场的不同场景。

16，第一条太平洋铁路完成后,铁路华工分别到哪里去了？

 铁路华工时公司雇佣的临时工、季节工，属于公司聘任的正式职务各有多少时首先需要厘清的问题。随着1869年铁路的建成和1873年美国经济危机的蔓延。铁路华工除需要查清的回国人数外，他们以及继续来到美国的华工到那里去继续寻找信工作了？哪些人去加拿大？哪些人去加州和美国南部？那些人留在西部？哪些人去美国中部和美东地区，例如大体沿着铁路线去堪萨斯州圣路易斯、宾州、马萨诸塞州北亚当斯、新泽西州、纽约州等地，干何种业务，塔恩的集聚区和日后的唐人街有和关联？

17，1882年排华法令前后,美国铁路华工的遭遇如何？

  这方面已经有大量排华反华丑华漫画披露，估计地方报刊还会有继续披露，好在没有已经有19世纪中期看·报刊的数据库可供查询。此外对于哪些排华案件需要逐一查清。

18，如今我们找到了多少铁路华工的后裔？确切名单有哪些？

 铁路华工和华工后裔的确切名单十分珍贵。点滴积累，调查落实确定，不能确定存疑继续调查。迄今我们已经知悉的名单包括在美国的不及百十人，联络到他们的后裔和家人至关重要。

19，我们的方志和古籍及政府文献是怎样记载铁路华工的？为何直接谈到的很少？

20，迄今发现了哪些涉及铁路华工的族谱、家谱、村志？

     方志、族谱、家谱、村志时中国史籍的重要成果和特色。不仅需要普查国内的，而且需要普查海外的。还要联系遗址遗物，口述史料等靠考察。

    如果列为注意到上面例举的问题，相信会得出我们需要继续攻关的必要性和紧迫感。这件事情，需要大家来做，大家来做这件事，为国家、为华裔社会、为铁路华工家族、也为厘清被封存了一个半世纪之久的历史真相，为美中文化和建设交流作出了历史贡献的沉默道钉们的真相，我们难道不需要继续努力吗？

 笔者一直主张信守规矩，资源共享。让沉默道钉进入更多人的视野，让更多人参加探寻沉默道钉真相的行列，大家都来关注和必要的参与，到2019年5月10日纪念建成第一条太平洋铁路时，相信会涌现一批新成果的。

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《沉默道钉的足迹》序中提出的20个课题(2015年版)

本书着力于探寻和突破美国铁路华工研究上的难点、疑点、重点。全书四部分内容试图集中在以下20个课题上用图文形式作初步解读，提供了我们的思路供读者和研究者参考。

1，美国为何要兴建太平洋铁路？

2，中央太平洋铁路公司为何选择华工?

3，华工何时参加兴建中央太平洋铁路?如何界定华工参加兴建中央太平洋铁路的时间?

4，参与兴建中央太平洋铁路的华工从哪里来?广东五邑地区占多大比例?

5，这些华工以什么身份来美国？契约华工和自由移民所占的比例各有多少?

6，参与建设中央太平洋铁路的华工有多少人?各个年份的统计情况?

7，美国铁路华工承担了哪些工种，建设了那些最困难和最危险的施工地段？他们是怎样施工的?

8，他们的工作和生活待遇如何，和欧洲白人(如爱尔兰工人)有何不同？

9，在华工争取平等生活条件过程中发生了那些事件？

10，他们在美国的生活习俗如何？和白人社会如何交往？

11，有多少铁路华工死于兴建铁路过程中?

12，他们的遗骸是怎样处理的？墓地在哪里？先友的遗骸是怎样运回国内的？

13，美国铁路华工在美国家庭生活怎样?他们和国内家人是如何联系的？迄今发现家信情况?

14，迄今确定的铁路华工的姓名有哪些？为何难以发现他们的姓名?

15，1869年5月10日太平洋铁路合拢时，为何有关华工在场的看法不一?

16，第一条太平洋铁路完成后,铁路华工分别到哪里去了？

17，1882年排华法令前后,美国铁路华工的遭遇如何？

18，如今我们找到了多少铁路华工的后裔？确切名单有哪些？

19，我们的方志和古籍及政府文献是怎样记载铁路华工的？为何直接谈到的很少？

20，迄今发现了哪些涉及铁路华工的族谱、家谱、村志？

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深度研究美国铁路华工的20个课题

黄安年文  黄安年的博客/2014年11月23日发布

为了突破在美国铁路华工研究上的难点、疑点、重点，我以为需要在以下20个课题上多下功夫：

1，美国为何要兴建太平洋铁路？

2，中央太平洋铁路公司为何选择华工?

3，华工何时参加兴建中央太平洋铁路?如何界定华工参加兴建中央太平洋铁路的时间?

4，参与兴建中央太平洋铁路的华工从哪里来?广东五邑地区占多大比例?

5，这些华工以什么身份来美国？契约华工和自由移民所占的比例各有多少?

6，参与建设中央太平洋铁路的华工有多少人?各个年份的统计情况?

7，这些华工承担了哪些工种，建设了那些最困难和最危险的施工地段？是怎样施工的?

8，他们的待遇如何，和欧洲白人(如爱尔兰工人)有何不同？

9，在华工争取平等生活条件过程中发生了那些事件？（如1867年6月25日罢工）

10，他们的生活习俗如何？和白人社会如何交往？

11，有多少华工死于兴建铁路过程中?

12，他们的遗骸是怎样处理的？墓地在哪里？有些先友的遗骸是怎样运回国内的？

13，美国铁路华工在美国有无家庭生活?和国内家人是如何保持联系的？为何迄今没有发现家信？

14，迄今确定的铁路华工的名字有哪些？为何难以发现他们的名字?

15，1869年5月10日太平洋铁路合拢时，铁路华工在哪里？为何报道甚少?

16，第一条太平洋铁路完成后,铁路华工到哪里去了？

17，1882年排华法令前后,美国铁路华工的遭遇？

18，如今我们找到了多少铁路华工的后裔？

19，我们的方志和古籍及政府文献是怎样记载铁路华工的？

20，迄今发现了哪些涉及铁路华工的族谱、家谱、村志？

下面是斯坦福大学北美华工铁路网站提出的13个问题

FAQs

CPRR FAQS (Frequently Asked Questions)

1，How many Chineseworked on the first transcontinentalrailroad?

The precise number of Chinese who workedon the railroadfrom 1864 to 1869 is not clear; records are incomplete andinexact. Therailroad did not list most individual Chinese workers by name intheir payrollrecords, and instead listed headmen of work crews or laborcontractors whodistributed pay to the individuals on the crew. In January 1864,the CentralPacific hired a crew of 21 Chinese workers and hired more duringthat year. InJanuary 1865, convinced that Chinese workers were capable, therailroad hiredfifty Chinese workers and shortly after fifty more. But thedemand for laborincreased, and white workers were reluctant to do suchbackbreaking, hazardouswork. As Leland Stanford reported to Congress in 1865,“A large majority of thewhite laboring class on the Pacific Coastfind mostprofitable and congenial employment in mining and agriculturalpursuits, thanin railroad work. The greater portion of the laborers employed byus areChinese, who constitute a large element of the population of California. Without themit would beimpossible to complete the western portion of this great nationalenterprise,within the time required by the Acts of Congress.”

Soon the Chinese labor pool fromCaliforniawas exhausted, and the Central Pacific arranged with laborcontractors toimport large numbers of Chinese workers directly from China. By July1865, the Chineseworkforce was nearly 4,000. In February 1867, approximately8,000 Chinese wereworking on the construction of tunnels and 3000 were layingtrack, representingninety percent of the workforce. Historians estimate that atany one time asmany as 10,000 to 15,000 Chinese were working on constructingthe railroad.Most Chinese probably did not work for the entire duration ofconstruction andothers would take their place, particularly because the workwas so difficultand dangerous. Consequently, the total number of Chinese may beeven higher.

2，When were theyhired to work on the railroad?

Chinese worked on shorter railroad linesbeforeconstruction of the transcontinental, such as the San Francisco and San Jose RailroadCompany(now known as CalTrain) completed in 1863. Some Chinese began working ontheCentral Pacific as early as January 1864, and Director Charles CrockerandConstruction Superintendent James Strobridge were convinced in January 1865tohire large numbers of Chinese laborers for the workforce. Soon after,theCentral Pacific Railroad arranged with labor contractors to recruitlargenumbers of workers directly from China, and ships regularlybroughtadditional workers throughout the construction.

3，Where did theChinese workers come from?

Railroad workers recruited by laborcontractors camemostly from Guangdong (Canton) province, especially Siyi (四邑Sze Yap, meaningfour counties: Taishan台山, Kaiping开平, Xinhui新会 and Enping恩平).  These counties suffered fromextreme poverty andcivil unrest, and the area was close to Hong Kongas a point of departure. Desperate for work, workers fromthis part of Guangdong boarded ships for California and otherparts to support theirfamilies.

4，What were theChinese workers paid in comparison toworkers of European descent?

Chinese workers were initially paid 24to 24to 31 per month,although rates would vary depending on how skilled ordangerous the work. Forexample, those who worked in the tunnels were paid anextra 1permonth.Theirpayeventuallyroseto 1permonth.Theirpayeventuallyroseto 35 per day, which was roughly the same as for workersof Europeandescent. However, Chinese workers worked longer hours and had topay theirheadmen or contractors for their own lodging and food and even fortheir tools;on the other hand, the Central Pacific and Union Pacific providedwhite workersaccommodations, food, and tools without additional cost.Alexander Saxton, in“The Army of Canton in the High Sierra,” calculates thatChinese labor cost therailroad companies two thirds of what was paid to whiteworkers.

5，What were thehardest and most hazardous parts of therailroad route for them to build?

Bloomer Cut

In early 1864 workers began blasting anddigging throughsteep terrain on the Bloomer Ranch near Auburn, California,to create a levelgrade for tracks. Bloomer Cut, 38 miles from Sacramento, was 800 feet long and 63feethigh, and workers dug a trough through naturally cemented gravel and hardclaywith picks, shovels and black powder. This was the first majorengineeringchallenge for the railroad, and it was dangerous work. In January1864, theCentral Pacific hired a crew of 21 Chinese workers and hired moreduring thatyear, with at least some working at Bloomer Cut. A larger numberworked thereby the time Bloomer Cut was completed in March 1865.

Cape Horn

In summer 1865 construction began onCape Horn (namedafter the treacherous route for ships sailing around the tip ofSouth America) and completed a year later.This was athree-mile roadbed curving along steep terrain of the Sierra Nevadaat least1300 feet high above the American River east of Colfax.Work requiredgrading, leveling and clearing trees, stumps, rocks and otherobstructions alongan irregular slope dropping off between 45 and 75 degrees.Hundreds of kegs ofblack blasting powder were used to form a ledge from whicha level roadbed couldbe laid. There are conflicting reports on how the workwas carried out,including the belief that Chinese workers were lowered downcliffs in baskets toplant charges (see below).

Tunnels

In fall 1865 Chinese workers beganbuilding 15 tunnels,most of them at high elevations through the SierraNevadafor a total of 6,213 feet. Historians agree that the most difficulttunnel wasNo. 6, the Summit Tunnel, cut through solid granite, 1,695 feet longand 124feet below the surface. Progress was very slow, with many kegs of blackpowderused each day, but to little effect in the hard rock. Nitroglycerine wasmixedon site by a chemist, but it was too unstable, causing manyaccidentalexplosions, and its use was abandoned. Workers built a vertical shafthalfwaybetween the two tunnel openings, and in shifts around the clock they dugfourfaces simultaneously, from both exterior sides and from inside out.Workcontinued through two of the worst winters on record. Snow fromfierceblizzards often blocked tunnel entrances, and avalanches would sweep awaycampsof Chinese workers, carrying many to their death. The Summit Tunnelwascompleted, graded and track laid on November 30, 1867. Because of theseverewinter storms, the Central Pacific built 37 miles of snow sheds to coverthetracks in 1868 and 1869. The snow sheds were nicknamed the “longest barn intheworld.”

Ten Miles in One Day

On April 28, 1869 ten miles andfifty-six feet of trackwas laid in one day. The accomplishment was in response toa $10,000 wagerCharles Crocker made with Thomas Durant of the Union Pacificthat his workerswere capable of doing what seemed impossible. A squad of eightIrishrail-handlers and a small army of 4000 workers, mostly Chinese,accomplishedthe feat, working between 5 a.m.and7 p.m., with a mid-day break after laying six miles of track. In the end25,800ties, 3,520 rails (averaging 560 lbs.each), 55,080 spikes, 14,050 bolts, and othermaterials, totaling in weight4,462,000 pounds, were laid down.

The teamwork that went into laying tenmiles plus oftrack in one day was tremendous.  It was like achoreographerorchestrating a complex dance sequence.  Everyone moved witha rhythm. Theaccomplishment has not been matched even in modern times.

The names of the eight Irish workerswere recorded by therailroad, and they were hailed in a parade in Sacramento. None of theChinese workers’names were recorded; they were forgotten so they remainnameless.

6，How many Chineseworkers died building thetranscontinental railroad?

The Central Pacific did not keep recordsof the deaths ofany workers on the railroad. Some historians estimate fromengineering reports,newspaper articles and other sources that between 50 to 150Chinese were killedas a result of snow slides, landslides, explosions, fallsand other accidents.Chinese practice was to bury the deceased temporarily andat a later datecollect the remains in a box in a ritual fashion. The boneswould then beshipped back to Chinato be reburied in the worker’s home village.One newspaper article entitled“Bones in Transit” of June 30, 1870 inthe Sacramento Reporter reported that “about 20,000 pounds ofbones” dugup from shallow graves were taken by train for return to China,calculatingthat this amounted to 1,200 Chinese. Another article published onthe same dayin the Sacramento Union statedthat only the bones of about 50 Chinesewere on the train. Others believe thatsome Chinese must have also died in asmallpox outbreak among railroad workers,although there are no records if anyof the dead were Chinese. In addition,there were reports of Chinese workersbeing killed in Nevadaas the result ofIndian raids. Charles Crocker, testifying before Congressafter the line wascompleted, acknowledged that a great many men were lost duringconstruction –and most of those workers were Chinese.

7，What happened inthe 1867 strike?

On June 25, 1867 Chinese workers went onstrike. Fivethousand workers grading along the eastern slope of the Sierrabetween Ciscoand Strong’s Canyon and digging tunnels put their tools down andreturned totheir camps. When Chinese workers were first hired in 1864 theyearned 25perday,butthenwageswereraisedagain.InSpring1867CharlesCrockerraisedtheirwagesfrom 25perday,butthenwageswereraisedagain.InSpring1867CharlesCrockerraisedtheirwagesfrom 31 to 35permonth;buttheworkersdemanded 35permonth;buttheworkersdemanded 40 per month,reduced workdays from eleven to ten hours, and shortershifts digging in thecramped, dangerous tunnels. Shifts were supposed to beeight hours in thetunnels, but they were often forced to work longer. As theSacramentoUnion reported, theworkers protested“the right of the overseers of the company to either whip themor restrain themfrom leaving the road when they desire to seek otheremployment.”

Crocker recalled that, “If there hadbeen that number ofwhite laborers [on strike] … it would have been impossibleto control them. Butthis strike of the Chinese was just like Sunday all alongthe work. These menstayed in their camps. That is, they would come out and walkaround, but not aword was said. No violence was perpetrated along the wholeline.” Despite theirnon-violent tactic, the strike posed a mortal threat toCrocker, Stanford andthe other railroad “Associates” who received governmentsubsidies based on themiles of track laid. “The truth is they are gettingsmart,” Charles’ brother E.B. Crocker wrote, observing that the Chinese wereaware of the scarcity oflabor and therefore of their own leverage to bargain.E. B. Crocker and MarkHopkins considered taking advantage of the newly createdFreedmen’s Bureau tohire recently freed slaves as strikebreakers. Hopkins reasoned, “ANegro labor force wouldtend to keep the Chinese steady, as the Chinese havekept the Irishmen quiet.”

Charles Crocker cut off food and othersupplies. Aftereight days of increasing privation, Crocker confronted thestarving workers,along with James Strobridge, the local Sherriff and acontingent of deputizedwhite men, insisting that he would make no concessionsand threatened violenceto anyone preventing workers from returning to the job.Facing starvation andcoercion, the workers ended the strike. Charles Crockerbecame convinced thatthe labor action was a plot by the Union Pacific, whichaimed to sabotage theCentral Pacific’s forward progress in their race to gainmore miles forsubsidies. He never considered that the Chinese workers werecapable ofasserting their own interests.

8，What is thecontroversy over whether Chinese workers werelowered in baskets to placeexplosive charges at Cape Horn?

Debate has been furious among railroadenthusiasts andhistorians on the use of baskets at Cape Horn.Manyaccounts, starting in the early twentieth century, told of Chineseworkershanging over sheer precipices in straw baskets to chip away holesforexplosives. Once they lit the fuse, they signaled to be hastily drawn uptoavoid the blast, a very risky operation, and many would lose their lives ifthebasket was not drawn up fast enough. In some accounts Chinese workersrequestedto weave the baskets, explaining that they were already skilled doingsuch workalong the Yangtze River. The imagehas beenpowerful of Chinese workers hanging from baskets to do such hazardouswork, andthe depiction of workers in baskets along cliffs has appeared in manygraphicimages and literary representations, as well as histories.

However, other historians point out thatthere were noreports from engineers, no reports by Construction SuperintendentJamesStrobridge, no newspaper accounts, and no photographs of baskets beingusedduring construction at Cape Horn. Inthisview, the use of baskets is an exaggeration, a legend that has expandedovertime with each new version of the story. An 1869 article in The OverlandMonthlybased on witnesses described how workers“were suspended by ropesfrom above, the chain-bearers signaling to thoseholding the ropes, up anddown, forward or back.” One account described howworkers sat on boatswain’s(or boson’s) chairs, flat seats of woven ropes likeswings. They were then letdown to prepare for drilling and blasting. The slopewas not a sheer cliff buta drop between 45 and 75 degrees, so laboring inbaskets could have actuallyhindered work, since no one would be able to use hisfeet to maneuver.

Researchers in Chinapoint out, however,that the laborers from Guangdongwould have much experience working at greatheights for building roads andstructures along the Yangtze river, as well asclimbing tall trees to gather delicacies forcooking. The workers, therefore,would have had no problem hanging by ropes andbaskets during construction, soit’s plausible that some baskets could have beenemployed. Whether hung in basketsor by rope, there is no question the Chineseworkers undertook an arduous anddangerous task of cutting through steepterrain.

9，Were the workersliterate, and did they send letters backto China?

Since the workers came from theagricultural region of Guangdong,it isgenerally believed that most were illiterate farmers. To be literate inChinaat that time involved being conversant with Chinese classical texts, andbythat definition, almost all of the workers were not literate. However, bythecommonly accepted American definition of literacy – being able to readandwrite – a number may, in fact, have been literate. Evidence suggests,however,that at least some of the workers were educated; certainly, the headmenandagents for labor contractors could speak English and tally accounts, andatleast one labor contractor had apparently passed the lower level ofthemandarin civil service exams. Mark Twain, writing about the 1860s about Virginia City, Nevada,observedin Roughing It that theChinese “can read, write and cipherwith easy facility.” So far, though, noletter or document of any sort writtenby one of the Central Pacific workers hasbeen found. Chinese who worked onother lines after the first transcontinental,such as the Southern Pacific,have left some documents.

10，Why has no letteror journal from a worker been foundyet?

Guangdong suffered from rebellions,civilconflict, bandits and warlords in the mid-nineteenth century, so ifletters ordocuments were sent to families back home they may have beendestroyed in thechaos. Also, families may not have regarded the letters asimportant, sincetheir fathers and sons were merely lowly laborers. As well, thefamilies maynot have been able to preserve them in the subsequent 150 years ofinvasions,famine and social unrest. Finally, no exhaustive search for suchprimarydocuments has been conducted until now, so there may yet bepossiblediscoveries.

11，Why do we not knowmany of their names?

Chinese naming practices required threenames. First wasthe family name for a male, followed by a middle name thatindicates theperson’s village and generation, and lastly the given name, oftenwith symbolicor aspirational meaning. English speakers found Chinese names verydifficult tounderstand, and they are listed in payroll records and newspaperarticles insimplified forms or what could be described as nicknames, such as AhFong, AhChung and Ah Lim, with “Ah” serving as a designation less formal than“Mister.”Consequently, we have very few actual names, making it very difficultto trackdown the actual workers. We have been collecting names from oralhistoryinterviews of descendants and other sources, and we hope to obtain more.

12，What kind of fooddid they eat?

The workers insisted on eating Chinesefood: rice, driedvegetables, dried oysters, dried abalone fish, and some porkand poultry. Muchof these foodstuffs came from Californiasources, such as freshvegetables. They also drank tea and hot water withoccasional wine and opium.The Irish or white workers were fed mainly meat andpotatoes along with whiskey.The Chinese diet and especially the use of boiledwater reduced the outbreak ofdysentery and other diseases. In order to providefood for the workers, theCentral Pacific made an arrangement with one of thelabor contractors, Sisson,Wallace & Company, who had exclusive right tosell food and other suppliesto the Chinese workers. As they work moved throughNevada, theCentral Pacifichad two train cars labeled “ChinaStore,” from which goodscould be purchased. Because the demand for tea was sohigh, the contractordecided to bypass the middlemen and had their agents intheir Hong Kong officepurchase the tea directly from growers in China. Food wasso important thatthe Chinese cooks were paid more than unskilled workers. Inaddition, Chinesein their contracts insisted that a Chinese physician be in thevicinity.

13，What did therailroad workers do after the CentralPacific Railroad was completed?

Upon completion of the railroad, someworkers went backto China;others went towork in agriculture, mining, building levees along the rivers orwent toChinatowns in Sacramento, San Francisco, and thesmall towns in theSierras to enter domestic service or work in manufacturing toproduce cigarsand other items. Some continued to work for the Central Pacificupgrading thehasty construction, such as filling in land to remove a trestle.Chinese alsowent to work on the railroad from Sacramentodown San JoaquinValleyto Los Angeles.We have not yet been able to determine how many workersfrom the originaltranscontinental line went to work on other railroads versusthe number offresh workers contracted in China,but there were large contingentsof Chinese building the Southern Pacific andNorthern Pacific Railroads, as wellas other railroads throughout the West andeven in the East.

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