深度研究美国铁路华工的20个课题

黄安年文  黄安年的博客/2014年11月23日发布

为了突破在美国铁路华工研究上的难点、疑点、重点，我以为需要在以下20个课题上多下功夫：

1，美国为何要兴建太平洋铁路？

2，中央太平洋铁路公司为何选择华工?

3，华工何时参加兴建中央太平洋铁路?如何界定华工参加兴建中央太平洋铁路的时间?

4，参与兴建中央太平洋铁路的华工从哪里来?广东五邑地区占多大比例?

5，这些华工以什么身份来美国？契约华工和自由移民所占的比例各有多少?

6，参与建设中央太平洋铁路的华工有多少人?各个年份的统计情况?

7，这些华工承担了哪些工种，建设了那些最困难和最危险的施工地段？是怎样施工的?

8，他们的待遇如何，和欧洲白人(如爱尔兰工人)有何不同？

9，在华工争取平等生活条件过程中发生了那些事件？（如1867年6月25日罢工）

10，他们的生活习俗如何？和白人社会如何交往？

11，有多少华工死于兴建铁路过程中?

12，他们的遗骸是怎样处理的？墓地在哪里？有些先友的遗骸是怎样运回国内的？

13，美国铁路华工在美国有无家庭生活?和国内家人是如何保持联系的？为何迄今没有发现家信？

14，迄今确定的铁路华工的名字有哪些？为何难以发现他们的名字?

15，1869年5月10日太平洋铁路合拢时，铁路华工在哪里？为何报道甚少?

16，第一条太平洋铁路完成后,铁路华工到哪里去了？

17，1882年排华法令前后,美国铁路华工的遭遇？

18，如今我们找到了多少铁路华工的后裔？

19，我们的方志和古籍及政府文献是怎样记载铁路华工的？

20，迄今发现了哪些涉及铁路华工的族谱、家谱、村志？

下面是斯坦福大学北美华工铁路网站提出的13个问题

FAQs

CPRR FAQS (Frequently Asked Questions)

1，How many Chinese worked on the first transcontinentalrailroad?

The precise number of Chinese who worked on the railroadfrom 1864 to 1869 is not clear; records are incomplete and inexact. Therailroad did not list most individual Chinese workers by name in their payrollrecords, and instead listed headmen of work crews or labor contractors whodistributed pay to the individuals on the crew. In January 1864, the CentralPacific hired a crew of 21 Chinese workers and hired more during that year. InJanuary 1865, convinced that Chinese workers were capable, the railroad hiredfifty Chinese workers and shortly after fifty more. But the demand for laborincreased, and white workers were reluctant to do such backbreaking, hazardouswork. As Leland Stanford reported to Congress in 1865, “A large majority of thewhite laboring class on the Pacific Coast find mostprofitable and congenial employment in mining and agricultural pursuits, thanin railroad work. The greater portion of the laborers employed by us areChinese, who constitute a large element of the population of California. Without them it would beimpossible to complete the western portion of this great national enterprise,within the time required by the Acts of Congress.”

Soon the Chinese labor pool from Californiawas exhausted, and the Central Pacific arranged with labor contractors toimport large numbers of Chinese workers directly from China. By July 1865, the Chineseworkforce was nearly 4,000. In February 1867, approximately 8,000 Chinese wereworking on the construction of tunnels and 3000 were laying track, representingninety percent of the workforce. Historians estimate that at any one time asmany as 10,000 to 15,000 Chinese were working on constructing the railroad.Most Chinese probably did not work for the entire duration of construction andothers would take their place, particularly because the work was so difficultand dangerous. Consequently, the total number of Chinese may be even higher.

2，When were they hired to work on the railroad?

Chinese worked on shorter railroad lines beforeconstruction of the transcontinental, such as the San Francisco and San Jose Railroad Company(now known as CalTrain) completed in 1863. Some Chinese began working on theCentral Pacific as early as January 1864, and Director Charles Crocker andConstruction Superintendent James Strobridge were convinced in January 1865 tohire large numbers of Chinese laborers for the workforce. Soon after, theCentral Pacific Railroad arranged with labor contractors to recruit largenumbers of workers directly from China, and ships regularly broughtadditional workers throughout the construction.

3，Where did the Chinese workers come from?

Railroad workers recruited by labor contractors camemostly from Guangdong (Canton) province, especially Siyi (四邑Sze Yap, meaningfour counties: Taishan台山, Kaiping开平, Xinhui新会 and Enping恩平).  These counties suffered fromextreme poverty and civil unrest, and the area was close to Hong Kong as a point of departure. Desperate for work, workers fromthis part of Guangdong boarded ships for California and otherparts to support their families.

4，What were the Chinese workers paid in comparison toworkers of European descent?

Chinese workers were initially paid $24 to $31 per month,although rates would vary depending on how skilled or dangerous the work. Forexample, those who worked in the tunnels were paid an extra $1 per month. Theirpay eventually rose to $35 per day, which was roughly the same as for workersof European descent. However, Chinese workers worked longer hours and had topay their headmen or contractors for their own lodging and food and even fortheir tools; on the other hand, the Central Pacific and Union Pacific providedwhite workers accommodations, food, and tools without additional cost.Alexander Saxton, in “The Army of Canton in the High Sierra,” calculates thatChinese labor cost the railroad companies two thirds of what was paid to whiteworkers.

5，What were the hardest and most hazardous parts of therailroad route for them to build?

Bloomer Cut

In early 1864 workers began blasting and digging throughsteep terrain on the Bloomer Ranch near Auburn, California, to create a levelgrade for tracks. Bloomer Cut, 38 miles from Sacramento, was 800 feet long and 63 feethigh, and workers dug a trough through naturally cemented gravel and hard claywith picks, shovels and black powder. This was the first major engineeringchallenge for the railroad, and it was dangerous work. In January 1864, theCentral Pacific hired a crew of 21 Chinese workers and hired more during thatyear, with at least some working at Bloomer Cut. A larger number worked thereby the time Bloomer Cut was completed in March 1865.

Cape Horn

In summer 1865 construction began on Cape Horn (namedafter the treacherous route for ships sailing around the tip of South America) and completed a year later. This was athree-mile roadbed curving along steep terrain of the Sierra Nevada at least1300 feet high above the American River east of Colfax.Work required grading, leveling and clearing trees, stumps, rocks and otherobstructions along an irregular slope dropping off between 45 and 75 degrees.Hundreds of kegs of black blasting powder were used to form a ledge from whicha level roadbed could be laid. There are conflicting reports on how the workwas carried out, including the belief that Chinese workers were lowered downcliffs in baskets to plant charges (see below).

Tunnels

In fall 1865 Chinese workers began building 15 tunnels,most of them at high elevations through the Sierra Nevadafor a total of 6,213 feet. Historians agree that the most difficult tunnel wasNo. 6, the Summit Tunnel, cut through solid granite, 1,695 feet long and 124feet below the surface. Progress was very slow, with many kegs of black powderused each day, but to little effect in the hard rock. Nitroglycerine was mixedon site by a chemist, but it was too unstable, causing many accidentalexplosions, and its use was abandoned. Workers built a vertical shaft halfwaybetween the two tunnel openings, and in shifts around the clock they dug fourfaces simultaneously, from both exterior sides and from inside out. Workcontinued through two of the worst winters on record. Snow from fierceblizzards often blocked tunnel entrances, and avalanches would sweep away campsof Chinese workers, carrying many to their death. The Summit Tunnel wascompleted, graded and track laid on November 30, 1867. Because of the severewinter storms, the Central Pacific built 37 miles of snow sheds to cover thetracks in 1868 and 1869. The snow sheds were nicknamed the “longest barn in theworld.”

Ten Miles in One Day

On April 28, 1869 ten miles and fifty-six feet of trackwas laid in one day. The accomplishment was in response to a $10,000 wagerCharles Crocker made with Thomas Durant of the Union Pacific that his workerswere capable of doing what seemed impossible. A squad of eight Irishrail-handlers and a small army of 4000 workers, mostly Chinese, accomplishedthe feat, working between 5 a.m.and 7 p.m., with a mid-day break after laying six miles of track. In the end25,800 ties, 3,520 rails (averaging 560 lbs. each), 55,080 spikes, 14,050 bolts, and othermaterials, totaling in weight 4,462,000 pounds, were laid down.

The teamwork that went into laying ten miles plus oftrack in one day was tremendous.  It was like a choreographerorchestrating a complex dance sequence.  Everyone moved with a rhythm. Theaccomplishment has not been matched even in modern times.

The names of the eight Irish workers were recorded by therailroad, and they were hailed in a parade in Sacramento. None of the Chinese workers’names were recorded; they were forgotten so they remain nameless.

6，How many Chinese workers died building thetranscontinental railroad?

The Central Pacific did not keep records of the deaths ofany workers on the railroad. Some historians estimate from engineering reports,newspaper articles and other sources that between 50 to 150 Chinese were killedas a result of snow slides, landslides, explosions, falls and other accidents.Chinese practice was to bury the deceased temporarily and at a later datecollect the remains in a box in a ritual fashion. The bones would then beshipped back to Chinato be reburied in the worker’s home village. One newspaper article entitled“Bones in Transit” of June 30, 1870 inthe Sacramento Reporter reported that “about 20,000 pounds of bones” dugup from shallow graves were taken by train for return to China, calculatingthat this amounted to 1,200 Chinese. Another article published on the same dayin the Sacramento Union stated that only the bones of about 50 Chinesewere on the train. Others believe that some Chinese must have also died in asmallpox outbreak among railroad workers, although there are no records if anyof the dead were Chinese. In addition, there were reports of Chinese workersbeing killed in Nevadaas the result of Indian raids. Charles Crocker, testifying before Congressafter the line was completed, acknowledged that a great many men were lost duringconstruction – and most of those workers were Chinese.

7，What happened in the 1867 strike?

On June 25, 1867 Chinese workers went on strike. Fivethousand workers grading along the eastern slope of the Sierra between Ciscoand Strong’s Canyon and digging tunnels put their tools down and returned totheir camps. When Chinese workers were first hired in 1864 they earned $25 perday, but then wages were raised again. In Spring 1867 Charles Crocker raisedtheir wages from $31 to $35 per month; but the workers demanded $40 per month,reduced workdays from eleven to ten hours, and shorter shifts digging in thecramped, dangerous tunnels. Shifts were supposed to be eight hours in thetunnels, but they were often forced to work longer. As the SacramentoUnion reported, the workers protested“the right of the overseers of the company to either whip them or restrain themfrom leaving the road when they desire to seek other employment.”

Crocker recalled that, “If there had been that number ofwhite laborers [on strike] … it would have been impossible to control them. Butthis strike of the Chinese was just like Sunday all along the work. These menstayed in their camps. That is, they would come out and walk around, but not aword was said. No violence was perpetrated along the whole line.” Despite theirnon-violent tactic, the strike posed a mortal threat to Crocker, Stanford andthe other railroad “Associates” who received government subsidies based on themiles of track laid. “The truth is they are getting smart,” Charles’ brother E.B. Crocker wrote, observing that the Chinese were aware of the scarcity oflabor and therefore of their own leverage to bargain. E. B. Crocker and MarkHopkins considered taking advantage of the newly created Freedmen’s Bureau tohire recently freed slaves as strikebreakers. Hopkins reasoned, “A Negro labor force wouldtend to keep the Chinese steady, as the Chinese have kept the Irishmen quiet.”

Charles Crocker cut off food and other supplies. Aftereight days of increasing privation, Crocker confronted the starving workers,along with James Strobridge, the local Sherriff and a contingent of deputizedwhite men, insisting that he would make no concessions and threatened violenceto anyone preventing workers from returning to the job. Facing starvation andcoercion, the workers ended the strike. Charles Crocker became convinced thatthe labor action was a plot by the Union Pacific, which aimed to sabotage theCentral Pacific’s forward progress in their race to gain more miles forsubsidies. He never considered that the Chinese workers were capable ofasserting their own interests.

8，What is the controversy over whether Chinese workers werelowered in baskets to place explosive charges at Cape Horn?

Debate has been furious among railroad enthusiasts andhistorians on the use of baskets at Cape Horn.Many accounts, starting in the early twentieth century, told of Chinese workershanging over sheer precipices in straw baskets to chip away holes forexplosives. Once they lit the fuse, they signaled to be hastily drawn up toavoid the blast, a very risky operation, and many would lose their lives if thebasket was not drawn up fast enough. In some accounts Chinese workers requestedto weave the baskets, explaining that they were already skilled doing such workalong the Yangtze River. The image has beenpowerful of Chinese workers hanging from baskets to do such hazardous work, andthe depiction of workers in baskets along cliffs has appeared in many graphicimages and literary representations, as well as histories.

However, other historians point out that there were noreports from engineers, no reports by Construction Superintendent JamesStrobridge, no newspaper accounts, and no photographs of baskets being usedduring construction at Cape Horn. In thisview, the use of baskets is an exaggeration, a legend that has expanded overtime with each new version of the story. An 1869 article in The OverlandMonthly based on witnesses described how workers “were suspended by ropesfrom above, the chain-bearers signaling to those holding the ropes, up anddown, forward or back.” One account described how workers sat on boatswain’s(or boson’s) chairs, flat seats of woven ropes like swings. They were then letdown to prepare for drilling and blasting. The slope was not a sheer cliff buta drop between 45 and 75 degrees, so laboring in baskets could have actuallyhindered work, since no one would be able to use his feet to maneuver.

Researchers in Chinapoint out, however, that the laborers from Guangdongwould have much experience working at great heights for building roads andstructures along the Yangtze river, as well asclimbing tall trees to gather delicacies for cooking. The workers, therefore,would have had no problem hanging by ropes and baskets during construction, soit’s plausible that some baskets could have been employed. Whether hung in basketsor by rope, there is no question the Chinese workers undertook an arduous anddangerous task of cutting through steep terrain.

9，Were the workers literate, and did they send letters backto China?

Since the workers came from the agricultural region of Guangdong, it isgenerally believed that most were illiterate farmers. To be literate in Chinaat that time involved being conversant with Chinese classical texts, and bythat definition, almost all of the workers were not literate. However, by thecommonly accepted American definition of literacy – being able to read andwrite – a number may, in fact, have been literate. Evidence suggests, however,that at least some of the workers were educated; certainly, the headmen andagents for labor contractors could speak English and tally accounts, and atleast one labor contractor had apparently passed the lower level of themandarin civil service exams. Mark Twain, writing about the 1860s about Virginia City, Nevada,observed in Roughing It that the Chinese “can read, write and cipherwith easy facility.” So far, though, no letter or document of any sort writtenby one of the Central Pacific workers has been found. Chinese who worked onother lines after the first transcontinental, such as the Southern Pacific,have left some documents.

10，Why has no letter or journal from a worker been foundyet?

Guangdong suffered from rebellions, civilconflict, bandits and warlords in the mid-nineteenth century, so if letters ordocuments were sent to families back home they may have been destroyed in thechaos. Also, families may not have regarded the letters as important, sincetheir fathers and sons were merely lowly laborers. As well, the families maynot have been able to preserve them in the subsequent 150 years of invasions,famine and social unrest. Finally, no exhaustive search for such primarydocuments has been conducted until now, so there may yet be possiblediscoveries.

11，Why do we not know many of their names?

Chinese naming practices required three names. First wasthe family name for a male, followed by a middle name that indicates theperson’s village and generation, and lastly the given name, often with symbolicor aspirational meaning. English speakers found Chinese names very difficult tounderstand, and they are listed in payroll records and newspaper articles insimplified forms or what could be described as nicknames, such as Ah Fong, AhChung and Ah Lim, with “Ah” serving as a designation less formal than “Mister.”Consequently, we have very few actual names, making it very difficult to trackdown the actual workers. We have been collecting names from oral historyinterviews of descendants and other sources, and we hope to obtain more.

12，What kind of food did they eat?

The workers insisted on eating Chinese food: rice, driedvegetables, dried oysters, dried abalone fish, and some pork and poultry. Muchof these foodstuffs came from Californiasources, such as fresh vegetables. They also drank tea and hot water withoccasional wine and opium. The Irish or white workers were fed mainly meat andpotatoes along with whiskey. The Chinese diet and especially the use of boiledwater reduced the outbreak of dysentery and other diseases. In order to providefood for the workers, the Central Pacific made an arrangement with one of thelabor contractors, Sisson, Wallace & Company, who had exclusive right tosell food and other supplies to the Chinese workers. As they work moved throughNevada, theCentral Pacific had two train cars labeled “China Store,” from which goodscould be purchased. Because the demand for tea was so high, the contractordecided to bypass the middlemen and had their agents in their Hong Kong officepurchase the tea directly from growers in China. Food was so important thatthe Chinese cooks were paid more than unskilled workers. In addition, Chinesein their contracts insisted that a Chinese physician be in the vicinity.

13，What did the railroad workers do after the CentralPacific Railroad was completed?

Upon completion of the railroad, some workers went backto China; others went towork in agriculture, mining, building levees along the rivers or went toChinatowns in Sacramento, San Francisco, and the small towns in theSierras to enter domestic service or work in manufacturing to produce cigarsand other items. Some continued to work for the Central Pacific upgrading thehasty construction, such as filling in land to remove a trestle. Chinese alsowent to work on the railroad from Sacramentodown San Joaquin Valleyto Los Angeles.We have not yet been able to determine how many workers from the originaltranscontinental line went to work on other railroads versus the number offresh workers contracted in China,but there were large contingents of Chinese building the Southern Pacific andNorthern Pacific Railroads, as well as other railroads throughout the West andeven in the East.

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