Principles of Instructional Design

Fourth Edition

Rober M.Gagne

Leslie J.Briggs

Walter W.Wager

pages 66-92

cognitive strategies

a very special kind of intellectual skill,or particular importance to learning and thinking,is the cognitive startegies,a cognitive strategy is a control process,an internal process by which learners select and modify their ways of attending,learning,remembering,and thinking

varieties of learner strategies

rehearsal strategies

in simplest form,the practice is simply repeating to themselves the names of items in and ordered list(例如：美國總統名稱或者各州州名);in the case of more complex learning tasks, such as learning the main ideas of a printed text,rehearsal may be accomplished by underlining the main ideas or by copying portions of the text

elaboration strategies

in using the techniques of elaboration,the learner deliberately associates the item to be learned with other readily accessible material,when applied to learning from prose texts, elaboration activities include paraphrasing,summarizing,note taking,and generating questions with answers

organizing strategies

arranging material to be learned into an organized framwork is the basic technique of these startegies.learners are able to acquire startegies that organize passage of text into several particular kinds of relations among ideas,such as comparison,collection,and description

comprehension monitoring startegies

these strategies,sometimes referred to as metacognitive strategies,pertain to the student's capability of setting goals for learning,estimating the success with which the goals are being met,and selecting alternative strategies to meet the goals,these are strategies having the function of monitoring,the presence of which becomes evident in reading for understanding,students have been taught to develop their own statements and questions to be used in guiding and controlling their performance in the comprehension of prose

affective strategies

these techniques may be used by learners to focus and maintain attention,to control anxiety and to manage time effectively.

other organizational strategies

chunking,spatial,bridging,and multipurpose

functions of cognitive strategies in support of stages of information processing

learning processes               supportive strategies

selective perception            highlighting

                                           underlining

                                           advance organizers

                                           adjunct questions

                                           outlining

rehearsal                            paraphrasing

                                           note taking

                                           imagery

                                           outlining

                                           chunking

semantic encoding               concept maps

                                           taxonomies

                                           analogies

                                           rules/productions

                                           schemas

retrieval                             mnemonics

                                           imagery

executive control                metacognitive strategies

learning cognitive strategies

a cognitive strategy is a cognitive skill that selects and guides the internal processes involved in learning and thinking

a learner's cognitive strategies may determine,for example,how readily he learns,how well he recalls and uses what has been learned,and how fluently he thinks

there are bound to be enormous differences in intellectual capacity among people,which can never be completly overcome by environmental influences such as education

to learn to think,the student needs to be given opportunities to think

metacognition

the internal processing that makes use of cognitive strategies to monitor and control other learning and memory processes is known generally as metacognition

strategies for problem solving

a number of strategies employed by adults in solving verbally stated problems

these include

1.inferrening transformed conceptions of the givens

2.classifying action sequences rather than randomly choosing them

3.choosing actions at any given state of the problem that get closer to the goal  hill climbing

4.identifying contraditions that prove the goal cannot be attained from the given

5.breaking the problem into parts

6.working backward from the goal statement

varieties of intellectual skills in school subjects

the range of human capabilities called intellectual skills includes the varieties of discrimina-tions , concrete concepts,defined concepts,rules,and the higher-order rules often required in problem solving,an additional category of internally organized skills is cognitive strategies which govern the learner's behavior in learning and thinking,and thus,determine its qualify and efficiency

these varieties of learning are distinguishable by 

1.the class of performance they make possible

2.the internal and external conditions necessary for their occurrence

3.the complexity of the internal process they establish in the individual's memory

varieties of learning 

information,attitudes,and motor skills

three aspects of the learning situation

the performance to be acuquired as a result of learning

the internal conditions that need to be present for learning to occur

the external conditions that bring essential stimulation to bear upon the learner

verbal information(knowledge)

verbal information is also called verbal knowledge,according to theory,it is stored as networks of propositions that conform to the rules of language,another name for it, intended to emphasize the performance capability it implies,is declarative knowledge

particular information may be needed for a learner to continue learning a topic or subject

much of it may be continually useful to the individual throughout life

all people need to know the names of letters,numerals,common objects,and a host of facts about themselves and their environment in order to receive and give communica-tions

knowing the facts about the community,the state,and the nation and the services they provide,as well as the responsibilities owed them,enables the individual to participate as a citizen,cultural and historical knowledge may also contribute to the achievement and maintenance of the individual's identify or sense of self-awareness of his origins in relation to those of the society to which he belongs

knowledge is the vehicle for thought and problem solving

factual information is needed in learning the increasingly complex intellectual skills of a subject or discipline

general knowledge,particularly that which reflects the cultural heritage,is often considered desirable or even essential in make possible the communications necessary for functioning as a citizen of a community or nation,in addtion,however,it seems likely that such bodies of general knowledge become the carrier of thought for the human being engaged in reflective thinking and problem solving

the learning of verbal information

it may be delivered to their ears in the form of oral communications or to their eyes in the form of printed words and illustrations

three kinds of learning situations

the first concerns the learning of labels or names,a second pertains to the learning of isolated or single facts,which may or may not be parts of larger meaningful communications, the third is the learning of organized information.

learning lables

to learn a label simply means to acquire the capability of making a consistent verbal response to an object class in such a way that it is "named"

learning the name of an object in the sense of a label is quite distinct from learning the meaning of that name

learning of sets of names can often be aided by the use of mnemonic techniques

learning facts

a fact is a verbal statement that expresses a relation two or more named objects or events

例如： the book has a blue cover

learned facts are of obvious value to the student for two major reasons

they may be essential to everyday living

they are used in further learning

with regard to the function of facts as elements in the learning of skills or addtional information,it is evident that such facts can be looked up in convenient reference books or tables when this further learning is about to take place,the alternative is for the student to learn the facts and store them in his memory so that he may then retrieve them whenever he needs them

the designer of instruction,has the obligation of deciding which of a great many facts in a given course are (1)of such infrequent usage that they had better be looked up,(2)of such relatively frequent reference that learning them would be an efficient strategy,or(3)of such fundamental importance that they ought to be remembered for a lifetime

learning organized knowledge

larger bodies of knowledge are organized from smaller units so that they become meaningful wholes

the key to remembering bodies of knowledge appears to be one of having them organized in such a way that they can be readily retrieved,organizing verbal information appears to require generating new ideas that relates sets of information already stored in memory

the more highly organized this previously acquired information,the easier it is for a student to acquire and retain any given new fact that can be related to this organized structure

what to look for or what to remember may be made to a learner before learning begins

attitudes

direct methods

there are direct methods of establishing and changing attitudes,which sometimes occur naturally and without prior planning.a conditioned response of the classical sort may establish an attitude of approach or avoidance toward some particular class of objects, events ,or persons

some of the attitudes students bring to school with them may be dependent upon earlier conditoning experiences

arranging contingencies of reinforcement

if a new skill or element of knowledge to be learned is followed by some preferred or rewarding activity,in such a way that the latter is contingent upon achieving the former,this general situation describes the basic prototype of learning,according to skinner,in addition, the student who begins with a liking for the second activity(called a reinforcer)will,in the course of this act of learning,acquire a liking for the first task

老師在吃餅乾，孩子說餅乾（孩子會分別說 我 想 吃 餅乾），老師教孩子說我想吃餅乾，孩子說出來後老師把餅乾給孩子，後面，孩子更傾向於說出完整句字，而非詞語（確保說完整句，每次說詞彙都不能得到想要的）

an important indirect method

a method of establishing or changing  attitudes of great importance and widespread utility is human modeling,this method operates through the agency of another human being ,real or imagined

students can observe and learn attitudes from many sorts of human models

an attitude is indicated by the choice of a class of personal actions,these actions can be categorized as showing either a positive or negative tendency toward some objects,events, or persons

external conditions

external conditions may be described as the following sequence of steps

1.presentation of the model and establishment of the model's appeal and credibility

2.recall by the learner or knowledge of the situations to which the attitude applies

3.communication or demonstration by the model of the desired choice of personal action

4.communication or demonstration that the model obtains pleasure or satisfaction with the outcome of the behavior,this step is expected to lead to vicarious reinforcement on the part of the learner

明星、科學家等人的示範作用

it is likely that those teachers the student later remembers as good teachers are the ones who have modeled positive attitudes

some guidelines for changing attitudes（p. 91)

provide the learners with information about possible alternative choice

provide the learner with the pros and cons associated with the desired choice behavior

provide relevant models for the desired behavior

ensure that the environment supports the desired choice behavior

fit the desired behavior into a larger framework of values if possible

identify and teach the skills that make the desired choice behavior possible

recognize and reward choice behavior when it exhibited

don't inadvertently punish the desired behavior,例如：rewarding work with more work should be avoided since it inevitably leads to resentment by students,the schedule of reinforcement should be arranged such that the student wants to do more and thus becomes even more productive

allow learners to set their own goals with regard to desired behavior,there are several different stages in acquiring affective behavior,these include awareness,acceptance,and valuing,in addtion,effective behaviors are relative resistant to change,and any changes tend to occur very slowly,one technique is to have learners set their own goals,report on their own progress,and periodically reevaluate their goals

use alternative instructional strategies such as simulations,role playing,collaborative processes,or other involving experiences in which benefits from the desired behavior become obvious

don't inadvertently pair a behavior you want to change with one that is not related to that behavior