Language Disorders:from Infancy through Adolescence:

Listening, Speaking, Reading, Writing, and Communicating

Rhea Paul, PhD, CCC-SLPProfessor, Yale Child Study Center

New Haven, Connecticut

Courtenay F. Norbury, PhD

Senior Research Fellow Department of Psychology Royal Holloway University of London London,England

pages 480-500

language-for-learning(L4L)

planning intervention in the language for learning stage

in transdisciplinary intervention,specialists don't work independently on separate intervention agendas.instead they decide with the classroom teacher what the student's most immediate needs are and divide up the responsibilities according the strengths of each professional.

planning intervention with the IEP 

the IEP includes a statement of the student's present levels of educational performance,a statement of annual goals and objectives with criteria for determining whether each has been achieved,a summary of all special educational and related services(such as transportation)to be provided,a statement of the extent of participation in the regular education program,a justification of the student's placement in the least-restrictive  setting for that pupil,a statement of modifications needed in the regular classroom program to accommodate the student,the projected dates for initiating services,the duration of services,and the proposed date of review.

IEP goals at the language for learning stage may include targets in traditional oral language areas,such as increasing sentence length,expanding vocabulary,and increasing use of appropriate request forms.they also can include goals directed at improving classroom performance and integrating oral language and literacy.sample IEP goals for these kinds of targets might include following classroom directions,demonstrating comprehension of classroom textbooks,producing a cohesive story,or explaning the meaning of technical terms in the curriculum.

procedures for modifying the classroom environment so that the child with special needs can participate are an especially important aspect of the IEP for a child at the elementary school level.

justifying a placement as least restrictive is also important in this age range.any placement that moves the student away from the regular classroom or neighborhood  school must be justified on the basis of an inability to provide appropriate education in the mainstream setting.

section 504 of the rehabilitation act of 1973

children with a diagnosis of ADHD who do not have other learning disabilities may not qualify for special education,many of these students will have accommodation plans under section 504.

family-centered intervention for the school-age child

enlisting clients in identifying their own area of strengths and weaknesss and in setting priorities for working on goals identified in the assessment can help to ensure cooperation and make clients feel that the intervention is really for them.

a sample questionnaire for including school-age clients in intervention planning(483)

what's your best subject in school?why is that your favorite?

what part of school is hardest for you?why is it hardest?

what would you like to read more about?（名人、冒險、體育等）

what kinds of things do you like to read?（書籍、報紙、雜誌等）

what do you like to write?（詩、報告、故事、日記等）

how do you learn best(小組、單獨、使用電腦等）

what would you like to do better on in school?

what do you think we could do together to help you do better?

what do you wish your teacher did that would make it easier for you to do well in school?

tests are hard for everyone,but what would help you do better on tests?(延長時間、有人讀題、把答案說出來而非寫出來、每一頁的題目少一點）

what would you like to change about the way you work in shcool?

behavioral issues in intervention planning

positive behavior support represents a movement away from punishment-based approaches that emphasize obedience and compliance and toward instruction that emphasizes functional skill development.

functional behavior assessment is a procedure used to identify why problem behavior occurs and what purpose it serves.procedures usually consist of collecting information about the maladaptive behavior through chechlists,interviews,and direct observation of the problem behavior,recording important aspects of the situation in which it occurs.

developing and implementing comprehensive interventions (implemented throughout the day across settings by means of multiple intervention strategies developed by the teams)

the components of a comprehensive positive behavior support intervention plan:

behavior hypothese(statements of the most probable antecedents,maintaining factors and communicative functions of the problem behavior)

long-term supports(startegies to assist the student's overall development and interactions to creat the optimum quality of life for the student)

prevention strategies(changes in the environment that will minimize the likelihood that the problem behavior will occur)

fucntional communication training(adaptive and conventional communication skills are taught so they can replace maladaptive behaviors)

consequntial strategies(outlines of how the team responds to both the replacement skills and the maladaptive behavior)

differential reinforcement of other behavior 

social story contains three basic elements:

1.descriptive sentences identify a social setting the child finds problematic and describe it.

2.directive sentences tell what the child shoud do to be successful in the target situation.

3.perspective sentences describe internal states of others during that the target situation.

intervention products in the language for learning period

guiding priciples of intervention at the language for learning stage

priciple 1:use curriculum-based instruction(integrate the language intervention with the demands our students face in the classroom every day.)

priciple 2:integrate oral and written language(provide both oral and written opportunities for students to practice the forms and functions targeted in the environment)

principle 3:go meta(talking about talking and thinking about thinking,demonstarte through models and practice how particular forms and functions of language work,the client and clinician talk about the language forms and functions being used and state rules and principle explicity,focusing attention on the structure of language)

principle 4:collaborate to prevent school failure by participating in RTI,incorporating principle 1 through 3

example of integrating oral and written language activities in RTI:learning second-grade sight words(p.486)

intervention processs in the language for learning period

clinician-directed intervention in the language for learning stage

cognitive behavior therapy involves three basic steps:

1:the clinician tells the client explicitly what strategy will be developed,why it is important, and what procedures will be used to attain in the strategy.

2:the clinician "thinks out loud" to demonstrate how the strategy is accomplished.

3:the clinician has each client model this thinking out-loud process in turn.

this process would be repeated numerous times,until clients were able to generate self-monitoring  questions spontaneously.

child-centered intervention in the language for learning stage

scaffolding 

scaffolding involves identifying the student's zone of proximal development in curricular language skills,and devising activities that scaffold his current level of function into the zone of proximal development by means of clinician support.

creation of optimal task conditions(reducing the amount of stress and undue effort a student uses to complete a curricular task.working with classroom teacher to reduce the amount of material a student has to process and to present the material in samller units with extra time allowed for task completion.in additon to providing scaffolding in terms of narrative structure,clinicians can also create optimal task demands by structuring the written work the student is required to produce)

suggestions for books at various stages of narrative macrostructure development(p.488)

book report sequence(p.489)

書名是什麼

作者是誰

故事中最喜歡的部分（畫一幅圖）

對書中圖片進行描述

主要的人物特徵

故事開頭發生了什麼事

故事結局是什麼

...

guidance of selective attention(highlighting important information by using visual,verbal,and intonational cues)

provision of external support

“prep" clients for the lesson in a clinician session,previewing what she will be covering and some of the questions she will be asking,she might tell the clients ahead of time that she will be asking the class to think about and make a list of "good listening behaviors",she could preview the activity with the clients,helping them to generate their own list.

teachers need to do more than just ask questions in teaching activities;instead they should explain,model,highlight important ideas.and provide practice and scaffolding tailored to the child's current level of performance.

sequenced scaffolding approach example:teaching initial phoneme identification(p,490)

maximal support(provide multiple modes of target conceptO

moderate support(provide opportunity for child to practice adult model)

moderate support with model test question(provide the same moderate level of support,with opportunity for child to practice adult model,then provide opportunity for child to produce the answer to a question)

moderate support with unmodeled test question(provide the same moderate level of support, without opportunity for child to practice adult model,then provide opportunity for child to independently produce the answer to a question)

minimal support(provide a model with guidance of selective attention to target concept.then independently produce the answer to a question)

no support(provide opportunity for child to demonstrate knowledge of the concept independently)

hybrid intervention in the language for learning stage

one other consideration needs to be kept in mind,when working on oral language skills with school-aged children,priticularly in the areas of vocabulary,semantic integration,complex syntax,literate language forms,and discourse comprehension,we are not doing only language therapy,we are also building essential skills for improving reading comprehension.

semantics

vocabulary:a basis for reading comprehension

students with more extensive vocabularies do better in reading comprehension as well as in oral activities.

deepening both receptive and expressive lexical skills

1.activate what students already know about the new wrods.

a knowledge rating checklist for words that do and do not pertain to the topic 

2.provide a description,explanation,or example of the new term

3.ask students to restate the description,explanation,or example in their own words, connecting it to their own experiences and knowledge.

4.have students construct a picture,pictograph,or symbolic representation of the term.

單詞是什麼/定義是什麼/圖片

包裹/什麼是包裹/包裹的圖片

5.make connections among words and topics

starving

revenous

craving

hungury

pechish

example word ladder

6.use both spoken and written context(expose students to new words in a variety of language experiences)

7.ask students to discuss the terms with one another to refine and reformulate meanings.

8.use the words for writing and additonal reading

9.return to the words periodically in following weeks ,using games that enable them to play with terms,such as concentration,password,or charades.

metacognitive approach

1.they must not know what the wrod means

2.the word must be used in the assigned selection

3.the word must be key to describing a character,event,or idea in the selection.

write a guess as to what it might mean,based on their review of the context in which they encountered it.

look up the word in the dictionary and write down the one meaning most appropriate for this context

reread the words aloud in context and read the definition they found most appropriate

talk about how each word's meaning relates to the plot or main point of the selection and why each word might have been chosen by the author to convey this meaning.

1.keep a dictionary and thesaurus available in each classroom and therapy room

2.teach skills for alphabetizing and using the alphabetic system to find words in reference books in clinical pre-teaching and classroom collaborativi lessons

3.explicitly teach the various parts dictionary entries,including pronunciation key,etymology, and the meaning of the order of definitions

4.focus on word study;pointing out parts of words(roots and affixies)and the concept of identifying roots they know within new words

5.explain the meaning of abbreviations used,such as n. for noun

6.point ouf the use of sentences in the dictionary to help illustrate meaning and usage

7.once a definition is found,use the thesaurus to identify words related in meaning

8.teach how to use synonyms to eliminate redundancy and creat more precise expression through paraphrasing activities

9.always take newly defined works back to usage contexts,such as curricular themes and texts.

activities for supporting vocabulary,morphology,and spelling through word study(p.495)

root of the day

roots and branches

word sorting

homophone rummy

homograph concentration

children's books supporting vocabulary,morphology,and spelling through word study(p.496)

word finding

semantic integration and inferencing:enhancing reading comprehension

understanding what we read involves pulling together ideas from different sentences in a text,and drawing inferences by integrating informantion given in the text with information presented earlier and with background knowledge.

use prediction activities

interactive computer games(select what comes next in a story or simulation activity)

reminding students to remember the information in the story that they already know,think about what might happen next,and guess about the consequences of character's actions can help to keep their inferencing at an awareness level.

present students with various sentences,following each one with a question that requires an inference.

reading the fox went out on a chilly night

for example:the fox went out on a chilly night.(what season of the year was it?)

producing sentence bridges to make inferred information explicit.

出示兩個句子：

sam and dave looked up at the dark and cloudy summer sky.they decided to listen to the game on the radio.

提問：why cloudy weather might lead to listening to a ball game on the radio

感覺快要下雨了

不想在天氣不好的時候開車出去

呆家裡更暖和和乾燥

syntax/morphology:integrating advanced language forms with reading and spelling

the most important reason students need to learn advanced syntax and morphology is to support their understanding and use of literate language in reading,writing,and spelling.

adavanced morphology:supporting for spelling and reading comprehension

literate language forms:support for reading comprehension ans writing

intervention for complex sentences be carried in the context of real academic tasks, literature-based script approaches are a great way to accomplish this,as they are for so many other language goals.

how the different sentences convey different meanings,which pairs mean the same thing,in what situations each sentence would be most appropriate,and so on,focusing on the development of complex sentences in the context of increasing children's understanding of what they read and hear in the classroom makes these activities,too,excellent candidates for consultative suggestions,collaborative lessons,and tier II and III reading comprehension instruction,in addition to remidiation for children on IEPs.