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Principles of Instructional Design
Fourth Edition
Rober M.Gagne
Leslie J.Briggs
Walter W.Wager
pages 190-204
events of instruction and their relation to processes of learning
gaining attention reception of patterns of neural impulses
informing learner of the objective activating a process of executive control
stimulating recall of prerequisite learning retrieval of prior learning to working memory
presenting the stimulus matenal emphasizing features for selective perception
providing learning guidance semantic encoding,cues for retneval
eliciting the performance activating response organization
providing feedback about performance correctness establishing reinforcement
assessing the performancae activating retneval,making reinforcement possible
enhancing retention and transfer providing cues and strategies for retneval
gaining attention
various kinds of events are employed to gain the learner's attention
the use of stimulus change
appeal to the learner's interests,every student's interests are different
skill at gaining attention is a part of the teacher's art,involving insightful knowledge of the particular students involved
communications that are partically or even wholly nonverbal are often employed to gain attention for school lessons
a good perplanned lesson provides the teacher with one or more option for communications designed to gain attention
informing the learner of the objective
the learner should know the kind of performance that will be used as an indication that learning has,in fact,been accomplished
if objectives are to be communicated effectively,they must be put into words(or pictures,if appropriate)that the student can readily understand
what kind of purposeful activity might the learner be engaged in once the mutiple objectives of the lesson have been acquired?is he likely to be asked to use his newly learned knowledge to pass a particular kind of test,to teach the knowledge to other people,to make some sort of practical application,or to solve a particular sort of problem?whatever the enterprise is,it will draw upon the single objectives(verbal information,skills,attitudes)that make up the performance and that accordingly must be integrated into the goal
stimulating recall of prerequisite learned capabilities
at the moment of learning,these previously acquired capabilities must be highly accessible to be part of the learning event,their accessibility is ensured by having them recalled just before the new learning takes place
the recall of previously learned capabilities may be stimulated by asking a recognition or, better,a recall question
presenting the stimulus material
the stimuli to be displayed to the learner are those involved in the performance that reflects the learning
stimulus presentation often emphasizes features that determine selective perception
facilitate perception of essential features
in establishing discriminations,distinctive features may be emphasized by enlarging the differences between the objects to be distinguished
stimulus presentation for the learning of concepts and rules requires the use of a variety of example
認識圓形,it is desirabel to present not only large and small circles on the chalkboard or in a book,but also green circles,red ones,and ones that made of rope or string,one might even have the children stand and join hands to form a circle
comparable degree of usefulness can be seen in the use of variety of examples as an event for rule learning
when all the subordinated concepts and rules are known,the learner must fo a variety of examples to ensure that he understands and can use the rule,retention and transefer are also likely to be enhanced by presenting problems stated in words,in diagrams,and in combinations of the two over a period of time
once such rules are learned,groups of them need to be selectively recalled,combined,and used to solve problems
in the learning of both concepts and rules,one may proceed either inductively or deductively
幼兒學習圓形活著長方形概念時,可以先出示不同的圓形或者長方形再引入概念
對於年齡稍長的學習者學習一個概念時,可以先提出簡單定義根就是植物埋在地下的部分
providing learning guidance
do not tell the learner the answer,rather,suggest the line of thought which will presumably lead to the desired combining of subordinate concepts and rules to form the new to be learned rule
the amount of learning guidance,that is ,the number of questions and the degree to which they provide direct or indirect prompts,will obviously vary with the kind of capability being learned
guidance for learning is an event that may readily be adapted to learner differences
instruction that is highly didactic and that makes use of low level questions is likely to find greater appeal and effectiveness among learners of high anxiety,whereas low anxiety learners may be positively affected by the challenge of difficult questions,guidance taking the form or frequent pictures and oral communications may aid learners of low ability in reading comprehension,whereas these measures may be quite inefficient with skillful readers
the amount of hinting or prompting involved in the learning guidance event will also vary with the kind of learners
eliciting the performance
ask someone to show that he knows how to do it
show me or do it
providing feedback
as a minimum,there should be feedback concerning the correctness or degree of correctness of the learner's performance
feedback is automatically provided
feedback form an outside source
assessing performance
the immediate indication that the desired learning has occurred is provided when the appropriate performance is elicited,this is ,in effect,an assessment of learning outcome
如何知道孩子的表現不是靠運氣或者靠猜測
可以讓孩子再做一次
does the performance in fact accurately reflect the objective?
whether the performance has occurred under conditions that make the observation free of distortion
enhancing retention and transfer
when information or knowledge is to be recalled,the existence of the meaningful context in which the material has been learned appears to offer the best assurance that the information can be reinstead,the network of relationships in which the newly learned material has been embeded provides a number of different possibilities as cues for its retrieval
provision made for the recall of intellectual skills often include arrangements for practicing their retrieval
as for the assurance of transfer of learning,it appears that this can best be done by setting some variety of new tasks for the learner-tasks that require the application of what has been learned in situations that differ substantially from those used for the learning itself
variety and novelty in problem solving tasks are of particualar relevance to the continued development of cognitive startegies
instruction events and learning outcomes
functions of instruction events with examples for each of five kinds of learning outcomes 199
the events of instruction in a lesson
in using the events of instruction for lesson planning,it is apparent that they must be organized in a flexible manner,with primary attention to the lesson's objectives
the task to be accomplished
the type of learning represented in the task
and the students' prior learning
comparison with lessons for older students
as instruction is planned for middle and higher grades,one can expect the events of instruction to be increasingly controlled by the material of a lesson or by the learners themselves
events of instruction in design of a computer based lesson(p.201)
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