Teaching Children with Autism to Read for Meaning: Challenges and Possibilities

Judi Randi • Tina Newman • Elena L. Grigorenko

閱讀理解

對絕大部分身心障礙學生（如：智能障礙、聽障、自閉症、學習障礙）而言， 閱讀困難卻常是他們所必須面對的一項問題。無法適當發展出符合年齡預期的閱 讀水準，使得這些學童在課業學習、人際互動與生涯發展皆大受影響（錡寶香， 2006）

有識字能力的自閉症兒童常常只是讀出文章內容，而非真正理解文意

美國國家閱讀小組（Nation Reading Panel, NRP）蒐集近二十年來在閱讀教學 方面 203 篇實徵研究做分析報告，從中歸納出八種策略證明是可以增進閱讀理解 （引自黃瓊儀，2004），這八種策略依序為（1）理解監控（comprehension monitoring）；（2）合作學習（cooperative learning）；（3）圖形和語義組織（graphic and semantic organizers）；（4） 故事結構（story structure）－如：兒童能問和回答 故事中 wh-的問題；（5）問答命題（question answering）；（6）自我提問（question generation）如：兒童能問自己有關 wh-的問題；（7）摘要法（summarization）  及（8）多種策略教學法（multiple-strategy teaching）－即學生能閱讀文本時彈性 地使用多種策略（Chiang & Lin, 2007）。

摘自：自閉症兒童閱讀理解學習之探討 李雅絲、黃道賢、溫倫琪、周艾

No matter where children fall on the spectrum, children with ASDs generally demonstrate well-developed word recognition skills, but their reading comprehension is severely impaired (Nation et al. 2006).閱讀理解能力差

現在想想，這麼多年語文方面閱讀理解我一直拿不了高分，我的天，最怕閱讀理解，好想讀不出別人的意圖

children with ASDs tend to demonstrate well- developed word recognition skills in absence of corresponding skills in constructing meaning.（文字/詞語識別能力強）

單詞閱讀——文本理解

skills such as text integration, metacognitive monitoring, inference making, and working memory have all been found to contribute to variability in reading comprehension ability.

some children with dyslexia who have difficulty decoding are good comprehenders and conversely, some children who have well-developed decoding skills are poor at comprehending (Cain and Oakhill 2004; Nation 2001).識字障礙但是理解能力好，識字但是理解能力弱

automaticity in word recognition and the degree of success on listening comprehension tasks should predict reading comprehension.（聽覺理解）

字形 （orthographic）及音韻（phonological）

是「認字」，「破音字」，「視覺詞彙理 解」，「聽覺詞彙理解」，「視覺句子/短文理解」， 「聽覺句子/短文理解」

understand written text as well as spoken language.

focusing on words rather than global meaning关注词语本身而非通整篇文章

individuals with autism tend to focus attention on details, or single words, rather than global coherence (Nation 1999).

關注細節而非整體

children with ASDs are unable to determine character’s motives or identify with characters’ emotions or perspectives because of theory of mind deficits不知道別人的動機或者識別他人情緒/觀點

ndividuals with autism relied more on visual imagery視覺

high-functioning children with autism have strengths in rote memory, they have memory impairment due to poor use of organizational strategies, especially when the information is complex and requires the creation of an organizational structure to facilitate memory (Wil- liams et al. 2006).

自闭症高功能儿童在机械记忆方面有优势，他们因组织策略的使用不当而出现记忆障碍，尤其是当信息复杂且需要创建组织结构以促进记忆时（Wil-Liams等人2006）。

For example, one study found that preschool children with ASD could cate- gorize animate and inanimate objects based on surface features (Johnson and Rakison 2006). The children tended, however, to rely on rules to support inductive inferences (e.g., things that have legs or things that have wheels), which led them to make some inappropriate categorizations (e.g., classifying a table with animals).

一到分類恆哥就瘋了，動物可能還好點，水果、蔬菜直接瘋了，男女也不會分（最簡單長頭髮、短頭髮都分辨不了，可能光出示髮型能識別，如果有人臉的話就不好識別了）

asked the children to narrate a wordless picture book about a frog’s journey.看圖說故事

children in the autistic and developmentally-delayed group made fewer causal attributions about characters’ internal states and used less complex syntax than typically developing chil-dren.

making sense of their own life experiences

asked children to tell personal narratives or stories about themselves and things they liked to do說說自己的故事和喜歡做什麼

Teaching children to read for meaning is no easy task as reading comprehension involves a complex set of skills and processes and is sensitive to individual differences, often requiring different kinds of instruction for different learn- ers (Duke and Pearson 2002).

阅读理解涉及一系列复杂的技能和过程，對不同學習者進行不同指導

With regard to instructional approaches, there is evi- dence that children with ASDs benefit from direct instruction (Flores and Ganz 2007; Ganz and Flores 2009), instruction in natural settings using authentic materials and rewards (Koegel et al. 2009), usage of many support materials (Arick and Krug 1978), peer-mediated (Whalon and Hanline 2008) and parent-enhanced (Benson et al.2008) instruction, and computer–assisted instruction (Bosseler and Massaro 2003; Moore and Calvert 2000).

Teaching Vocabulary

showed a person displaying each emotion and different faces were used to show the same emotion, requiring the children to recognize the same emotion on different faces. The same strategy was used to teach opposites, such as big and little. The children were shown different big and little objects, requiring generalization of the concept across objects.教情緒，同一種情緒體現在不同的臉蛋上，教大小，出示不同的物品，同樣的杯子，一個大一個小，同樣的籃球，一個大，一個小等等

我現在先從詞彙入手，針對同一個詞彙出示不同的圖片進行練習，從圖片中只有一樣東西（目標詞彙對應的圖片）過渡到一張圖片（比如一個房間裡含目標詞彙的東西）

詞——短語——句子

慢慢過渡到句子

不斷嘗試，看看什麼方法比較合適