Use the menu below for guidelines about the different stages of the writing process.

Use the menu below to learn about common types of writing assignments.

Use this checklist as a list of reminders while you are editing your paper.

Proofreading means examining your text carefully to find and correct typographical errors and mistakes in grammar, style, and spelling. Here are some tips.

• Before You Proofread
• When You Proofread
• When You Want to Learn More

Before You Proofread

• Be sure you've revised the larger aspects of your text. Don't make corrections at the sentence and word level if you still need to work on the focus, organization, and development of the whole paper, of sections, or of paragraphs.
• Set your text aside for a while (15 minutes, a day, a week) between writing and proofing. Some distance from the text will help you see mistakes more easily.
• Eliminate unnecessary words before looking for mistakes. See the Writing Center handout How to Write Clear, Concise, Direct Sentences.
• Know what to look for. From the comments of your professors or a Writing Center instructor on past papers, make a list of mistakes you need to watch for.

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When You Proofread

• Work from a printout, not the computer screen. (But see below for computer functions that can help you find some kinds of mistakes.)
• Read out loud. This is especially helpful for spotting run-on sentences, but you'll also hear other problems that you may not see when reading silently.
• Use a blank sheet of paper to cover up the lines below the one you're reading. This technique keeps you from skipping ahead of possible mistakes.
• Use the search function of the computer to find mistakes you're likely to make. Search for "it," for instance, if you confuse "its" and "it's;" for "-ing" if dangling modifiers are a problem; for opening parentheses or quote marks if you tend to leave out the closing ones.
• If you tend to make many mistakes, check separately for each kind of error, moving from the most to the least important, and following whatever technique works best for you to identify that kind of mistake. For instance, read through once (backwards, sentence by sentence) to check for fragments; read through again (forward) to be sure subjects and verbs agree, and again (perhaps using a computer search for "this," "it," and "they") to trace pronouns to antecedents.
• End with a spelling check, using a computer spelling checker or reading backwards word by word. But remember that a spelling checker won't catch mistakes with homonyms (e.g., "they're," "their," "there") or certain typos (like "he" for "the").

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When you want to learn more

Take a class

The Writing Center offers many classes, including a number of grammar classes.

Use a handbook

A number of handbooks are available to consult in the Writing Center, and each Writing Center computer has an online handbook.

Consult a Writing Center instructor

Writing Center instructors won't proofread your papers, but they'll be glad to explain mistakes, help you find ways to identify and fix them, and share Writing Center handouts that focus on particular problems.

Check for information on how to make an appointment with a Writing Center instructor.

For further information see our handout on Peer Reviews.

Use the menu below to learn when you should watch the subject-verb agreement in your sentences.

• When the subject follows the verb
• When the expletive "it" is the subject
• When words like "each" are the subject
• When words like "none" are the subject
• When the subjects are joined by "and"
• When singular subjects are joined by words like "or"
• When one subject is singular and one plural
• When a linking verb is used
• When a collective noun is used
• When a relative pronoun is used as a subject of an adjective clause

Watch subject-verb agreement:

Reason

Examples

When the subject follows the verb

When the subject follows the verb (especially in sentences beginning with the expletives "there is" or "there are"), special care is needed to determine the subject and to make certain that the verb agrees with it.

On the wall were several posters.

There are many possible candidates.

There is only one good candidate.

When the expletive "it" is the subject

The expletive "it" is always followed by a singular verb.

It is my car which stalls.

It is their cars which stall.

When words like "each" are the subject

When used as subjects, words such as

• each, either, neither
• another
• anyone, anybody, anything
• someone, somebody, something
• one, everyone
• everybody, everything
• no one, nobody, nothing

take singular verbs.

Do not be confused by prepositional phrases which come between a subject and its verb. They do not change the number of the subject.

Each takes her turn at rowing.

Neither likes the friends of the other.

Everyone in the fraternity has his own set of prejudices.

Each of the rowers takes her turn at rowing.

Every one of the fraternity members has his own set of prejudices.

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When words like "none" are the subject

Other words such as

• none, any, all
• more, most, some

may take either singular or plural verbs, depending on the context.

Some of the dollar was spent.

Some of the dollars were spent.

[Note: here the prepositional phrase does affect the subject. It tells you whether you are talking about a part of one thing (singular) or about a number of things (plural).]

When the subjects are joined by "and"

Subjects joined by "and" take plural verbs.

Be aware: phrases such as "in addition to," "as well as," and "along with" do not mean the same thing as "and." When inserted between the subject and the verb, these phrases do not change the number of the subject.

Both Tom and Jane have English 167 papers due on Tuesday.

Tom, as well as Jane, has an English 207 paper due Tuesday.

When singular subjects are joined by words like "or"

Singular subjects joined by "or," "nor," "either . . . or," or "neither. . . nor" take a singular verb.

Either the man or his wife knows the truth of the matter.

Neither money nor power was important any longer.

When one subject is singular and one plural

If one subject is singular and one is plural, the verb agrees with the nearer subject.

Neither the television nor the radios work.

Neither the radios nor the television works.

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When a linking verb is used

A linking verb ("is," "are," "was," "were," "seem" and others) agrees with its subject, not its complement.

Joe's favorite dessert is blueberry muffins.

Blueberry muffins are Joe's favorite dessert.

When a collective noun is used

When regarded as a unit, collective nouns, as well as noun phrases denoting quantity, take singular verbs.

The whole family is active.

(Family is a collective noun regarded as a unit.)

The family have met their various obligations.

(The individuals of the family are regarded separately.)

A thousand bushels is a good yield.

(a quantity or unit)

A thousand bushels were crated.

(individual bushels)

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When a relative pronoun is used as a subject of an adjective clause

A relative pronoun ("who," "which," or "that") used as a subject of an adjective clause takes either a singular or plural verb in order to agree with its antecedent.

A vegetable that contains DDT can be harmful.

(Adjective clause modifying the singular noun "vegetable.")

Vegetables that contain DDT can be harmful.

(Adjective clause modifying the plural noun "vegetables.")

Mary is one of the students who have done honor to the college.

(Adjective clause modifies the plural noun "students." "Students" is the antecedent of "who."

In the above sentence Mary is just one of the students. So at least two students have done honor to the college.

Compare that to:

Mary is the only one of our students who has achieved national recognition.

In this case, "one," not "students," is the antecedent of "who."

Compare to the sentence above:

Of all our students, Mary is the only one who has achieved national recognition.

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Use the guidelines below to learn how to use conjunctive adverbs effectively in your writing.

Use conjunctive adverbs (or sentence adverbs) to:

• indicate a connection between two independent clauses in one sentence
• link the ideas in two or more sentences
• show relationships between ideas within an independent clause.

Conjunctive adverbs

Here are some examples of conjunctive adverbs:

How to punctuate conjunctive adverbs

-- All examples taken from "Facing Up to Sticker Shock," Time (April 20, 1987), 70.

Use the guidelines below to learn how to use coordinating conjunctions effectively in your writing.

See also our page on conjunctive adverbs.

Use coordinating conjunctions to indicate that the elements they join are equal in importance and in structure.

Coordinating conjunctions

Coordinating conjunctions join grammatically similar elements (two nouns, two verbs, two modifiers, two independent clauses).

How to punctuate coordinating conjunctions

When NOT to punctuate coordinating conjunctions

— All examples taken from "Facing Up to Sticker Shock," Time (April 20, 1987), 70.

Semicolons help you connect closely related ideas when a style mark stronger than a comma is needed.

By using semicolons effectively, you can make your writing sound more sophisticated.

Use a Semicolon to . . .

Reason

Example

Link two independent clauses

To connect closely related ideas

Some people write with a word processor; others write with a pen or pencil.

Link clauses connected by conjunctive adverbs or transitional phrases

To connect closely related ideas

But however they choose to write, people are allowed to make their own decisions; as a result, many people swear by their writing methods.

Link lists where the items contain commas

To avoid confusion between list items

There are basically two ways to write: with a pen or pencil, which is inexpensive and easily accessible; or by computer and printer, which is more expensive but quick and neat.

Link lengthy clauses or clauses with commas

To avoid confusion between clauses

Some people write with a word processor, typewriter, or a computer; but others, for different reasons, choose to write with a pen or pencil.

Rule

Example

A semicolon is most commonly used to link (in a single sentence) two independent clauses that are closely related in thought.

When a semicolon is used to join two or more ideas (parts) in a sentence, those ideas are then given equal position or rank.

Some people write with a word processor; others write with a pen or pencil.

Use a semicolon between two independent clauses that are connected by conjunctive adverbs or transitional phrases.

But however they choose to write, people are allowed to make their own decisions; as a result, many people swear by their writing methods.

Use a semicolon between items in a list or series if any of the items contain commas.

There are basically two ways to write: with a pen or pencil, which is inexpensive and easily accessible; or by computer and printer, which is more expensive but quick and neat.

Use a semicolon between independent clauses joined by a coordinating conjunction if the clauses are already punctuated with commas or if the clauses are lengthy.

Some people write with a word processor, typewriter, or a computer; but others, for different reasons, choose to write with a pen or pencil.

Incorrect Comma Use

Why It's Wrong

Correct Semicolon Use

The cow is brown, it is also old.

Both parts of the sentence are independent clauses, and commas should not be used to connect independent clauses if there is no coordinating conjunction. This mistake is known as a comma splice.

The cow is brown; it is also old.

I like cows, however, I hate the way they smell.

The conjunctive adverb however signals a connection between two independent clauses, and commas should not be used to connect independent clauses if there is no coordinating conjunction.

I like cows; however, I hate the way they smell

I like cows: they give us milk, which tastes good, they give us beef, which also tastes good, and they give us leather, which is used for shoes and coats.

It's unclear what the three list items are, since the items are separated by commas.

I like cows: they give us milk, which tastes good; they give us beef, which also tastes good; and they give us leather, which is used for shoes and coats.

Cows, though their bovine majesty has been on the wane in recent millenia, are still one of the great species of this planet, domesticated, yet proud, they ruminate silently as we humans pass tumultuously by.

It's unclear where the first independent clause ends and the second independent clause begins.

Cows, though their bovine majesty has been on the wane in recent millenia, are still one of the great species of this planet; domesticated, yet proud, they ruminate silently as we humans pass tumultuously by.

Incorrect Semicolon Use

Why It's Wrong

Correct Comma Use

The cow is brown; but not old.

The coordinating conjunction but doesn't require a semicolon, since the second part of the sentence isn't an independent clause.

The cow is brown, but not old.

Because cows smell; they offend me.

The first part is not an independent clause, so no semicolon is required.

Because cows smell, they offend me.

Use the guidelines below to learn how to use commas effectively in your writing.

Use commas to set off non-restrictive modifiers.

Do not use commas to set off restrictive modifiers.

Non-restrictive vs. restrictive modifiers

A non-restrictive modifier adds information that is not essential to our understanding of the sentence; if we remove it from the sentence, the basic meaning of the sentence does not change.

A restrictive modifier identifies, or limits the reference of, the noun it modifies.

The table below illustrates these definitions.

Further examples

Note the distinction and the different punctuation in the following pairs of sentences:

Self-test and answers

Ready to test what you've learned? Click on the link below:

Test your knowledge

For further information on commas see our page on Coordinating Conjunctions or our grammar and style FAQ. Or take one of the free grammar, style, and punctuation classes offered by the Writing Center.

Dashes, when used sparingly and correctly, can be used to make your writing sound more sophisticated.

Use dashes to . . .

Reason

Example

Indicate sudden changes in tone or thought within a sentence

To emphasize the contradiction between ideas

There is an illness in many foreign services--the people in them are only good at following instructions.*

I am under the impression that she has no instructions at all--and doesn't need any.*

The exuberant--I should say lunatic--quality of his ravings electrified the crowd. *

Set off some sentence elements

To insert parenthetical commentary while emphasizing their importance

(Parentheses tend to diminish the importance of what's enclosed in them)

Over a candlelit dinner last month at Spaso House, the ambassadorial residence in Moscow, Robert Strauss and his wife Helen listened as two Senators--Republican Robert C. Smith of New Hampshire and Democrat John Kerry of Massachusetts--agreed that the way to bring American audiences "out of their chairs" these days was simply to say, in Smith's words, "We won the cold war, and we're not going to send one dime in aid to Russia."*

Strauss favors--as does, sotto voce, the Administration--early admission of Russia to the International Monetary Fund.*

Create emphasis

To connect ideas strongly to each other

To feed, clothe, and find shelter for the needy--these are real achievements.