Principles of Instructional Design

Fourth Edition

Rober M.Gagne

Leslie J.Briggs

Walter W.Wager

pages 190-204

events of instruction and their relation to processes of learning

gaining attention                                                      reception of patterns of neural impulses

informing learner of the objective                          activating a process of executive control

stimulating recall of prerequisite learning        retrieval of prior learning to working memory

presenting the stimulus matenal                      emphasizing features for selective perception

providing learning guidance                                              semantic encoding,cues for retneval

eliciting the performance                                                      activating response organization

providing feedback about performance correctness                      establishing reinforcement

assessing the performancae                       activating retneval,making reinforcement possible

enhancing retention and transfer                           providing cues and strategies for retneval

gaining attention

various kinds of events are employed to gain the learner's attention

the use of stimulus change

appeal to the learner's interests,every student's interests are different

skill at gaining attention is a part of the teacher's art,involving insightful knowledge of the particular students involved

communications that are partically or even wholly nonverbal are often employed to gain attention for school lessons

a good perplanned lesson provides the teacher with one or more option for communications designed to gain attention

informing the learner of the objective

the learner should know the kind of performance that will be used as an indication that learning has,in fact,been accomplished

if objectives are to be communicated effectively,they must be put into words(or pictures,if appropriate)that the student can readily understand

what kind of purposeful activity might the learner be engaged in once the mutiple objectives of the lesson have been acquired?is he likely to be asked to use his newly learned knowledge to pass a particular kind of test,to teach the knowledge to other people,to make some sort of practical application,or to solve a particular sort of problem?whatever the enterprise is,it will draw upon the single objectives(verbal information,skills,attitudes)that make up the performance and that accordingly must be integrated into the goal

stimulating recall of prerequisite learned capabilities

at the moment of learning,these previously acquired capabilities must be highly accessible to be part of the learning event,their accessibility is ensured by having them recalled just before the new learning takes place

the recall of previously learned capabilities may be stimulated by asking a recognition or, better,a recall question

presenting the stimulus material

the stimuli to be displayed to the learner are those involved in the performance that reflects the learning

stimulus presentation often emphasizes features that determine selective perception

facilitate perception of essential features

in establishing discriminations,distinctive features may be emphasized by enlarging the differences between the objects to be distinguished

stimulus presentation for the learning of concepts and rules requires the use of a variety of example

認識圓形，it is desirabel to present not only large and small circles on the chalkboard or in a book,but also green circles,red ones,and ones that made of rope or string,one might even have the children stand and join hands to form a circle

comparable degree of usefulness can be seen in the use of variety of examples as an event for rule learning

when all the subordinated concepts and rules are known,the learner must fo a variety of examples to ensure that he understands and can use the rule,retention and transefer are also likely to be enhanced by presenting problems stated in words,in diagrams,and in combinations of the two over a period of time 

once such rules are learned,groups of them need to be selectively recalled,combined,and used to solve problems

in the learning of both concepts and rules,one may proceed either inductively or deductively

幼兒學習圓形活著長方形概念時，可以先出示不同的圓形或者長方形再引入概念

對於年齡稍長的學習者學習一個概念時，可以先提出簡單定義根就是植物埋在地下的部分

providing learning guidance

do not tell the learner the answer,rather,suggest the line of thought which will presumably lead to the desired combining of subordinate concepts and rules to form the new to be learned rule

the amount of learning guidance,that is ,the number of questions and the degree to which they provide direct or indirect prompts,will obviously vary with the kind of capability being learned

guidance for learning is an event that may readily be adapted to learner differences

instruction that is highly didactic and that makes use of low level questions is likely to find greater appeal and effectiveness among learners of high anxiety,whereas low anxiety learners may be positively affected by the challenge of difficult questions,guidance taking the form or frequent pictures and oral communications may aid learners of low ability in reading comprehension,whereas these measures may be quite inefficient with skillful readers

the amount of hinting or prompting involved in the learning guidance event will also vary with the kind of learners

eliciting the performance

ask someone to show that he knows how to do it 

show me or do it 

providing feedback

as a minimum,there should be feedback concerning the correctness or degree of correctness of the learner's performance

feedback is automatically provided

feedback form an outside source

assessing performance

the immediate indication that the desired learning has occurred is provided when the appropriate performance is elicited,this is ,in effect,an assessment of learning outcome

如何知道孩子的表現不是靠運氣或者靠猜測

可以讓孩子再做一次

does the performance in fact accurately reflect the objective?

whether the performance has occurred under conditions that make the observation free of distortion

enhancing retention and transfer

when information or knowledge is to be recalled,the existence of the meaningful context in which the material has been learned appears to offer the best assurance that the information can be reinstead,the network of relationships in which the newly learned material has been embeded provides a number of different possibilities as cues for its retrieval

provision made for the recall of intellectual skills often include arrangements for practicing their retrieval

as for the assurance of transfer of learning,it appears that this can best be done by setting some variety of new tasks for the learner-tasks that require the application of what has been learned in situations that differ substantially from those used for the learning itself

variety and novelty in problem solving tasks are of particualar relevance to the continued development of cognitive startegies

instruction events and learning outcomes

functions of instruction events with examples for each of five kinds of learning outcomes 199

the events of instruction in a lesson

in using the events of instruction for lesson planning,it is apparent that they must be organized in a flexible manner,with primary attention to the lesson's objectives

the task to be accomplished 

the type of learning represented in the task 

and the students' prior learning

comparison with lessons for older students

as instruction is planned for middle and higher grades,one can expect the events of instruction to be increasingly controlled by the material of a lesson or by the learners themselves

events of instruction in design of a computer based lesson(p.201)