Principles of Instructional Design

Fourth Edition

Rober M.Gagne

Leslie J.Briggs

Walter W.Wager

pages 142-164

using objectives in instructional planning

objectives and instruction

whether an original intention about the lesson's purpose has been overlooked or inadequately represented

whether the lesson has a suitable balance of expected outcomes

whether the approach to insturction is matched to the type of objective in each case

the balance of objectives

the objectives identified for each lesson are likely to represent several different categories of learning outcome

designing instruction

the systematic design of lessons making up a topic or course will result in the development of a sizeable collection of statements of objectives

the teacher may need to 

1.infer what the objectives are 

2.design the lesson so that the objectives represented in the textbook are supplemented by others

上這節課的目的是什麼？學生需要掌握哪些知識和技能

objectives and assessment

descriptions of objectives are descriptions of what must be observed to verify that the desired learning has taken place

with comparable adequacy,statements of objectives can serve as bases for the development of teacher-made tests,these in turn may be employed for formal kinds of assessment of student performance,when considered desirable by the teacher,alternatively,they can be used as self-tests that students employ when engaging in individual study or self-instruction

the identification and definition of performance objectives is an important step in the design of instruction,objectives serve as guidelines for developing the instruction and for designing measures of student performance to determine whether the course objectives has been reached

analysis of the learning task

what will students be doing after they have leraned?

scope of the analysis

the statement of purpose of a course should be concerned with what the student will be like after the instruction

in starting cause purposes,avoid the tendency to identify those that are too far removed,too far in the future,purpose should be stated in expected current outcomes of instruction

a good way to start the task analysis process for a course is to define the course purpose

types of task analysis

procedural task analysis

a procedural task analysis describes the steps in performing a task

such analysis involves breaking the task down into steps that the learner must perform to complete the task

uses of information-processing analysis

two primary kinds of information come from information processing analysis

first,such an analysis,and the diagram which results from it,provide a clear description of the target behavior,including the steps involved in the procedure

a second use of information processing analysis arise from its revelation of the individual steps that might not otherwise be obvious

learning task analyisi

a prerequisite is a task which is learned prior to the learning of a target objective and which aids or enables that learning

types of prerequisites

essential prerequisites and supportive prerequisites

prerequisites in learning intellectual skills

essential prerequisites for intellectual skills

a target objective representing an intellectual skill is typically composed of two or more subordinate and simpler skills,these latter skills are prerequisites to the learning of the target skill,in the sense that they must be learned first,before the target skill is put together,the prior learning of prerequisites may have occured some considerable time previously,often though,it occurs just prior to the learning of the target skill,within the same lesson

hierarchies of prerequisite skills

when a learning task analysis is carried out on successively simpler components of a target skill,the result is a learning hierarchy

the learning hicrarchy produced by a learning task analysis displays a pattern of progressively simpler intellectual skills,these skills are enabling objectives for a given target objectives(which is also an intellectual skill),furthermore,any particular skill, which may itself be an enabling objectives for a target skill.is composed of other subordinate skills

the main uses for a fully worked out learning hierarchy are

1.as a guide in the design of a sequence of instruction

2.as a guide for student and teacher in the planning of instruction assignments

conducting a learning task analysis for intellectual skills

intellectual skill analysis is carried out by working backward from a target skill.the purpose of the analysis is to reveal the simpler component skills that constitute the target skill

the steps are what an individual does in sequence when exhibiting a target  performan-ce , the capability of which has been learned

the subordinate skills are what the individual must learn,in a sequence beginning with the simplest(what simpler skills would a learner have to possess to learn this skill)

on the basis of knowledge about student characteristics,that the skill at the lowest level of the hierarchy are already known and do not have to be learned

supportive prerequisites for intellectual skills

a number of kinds of learning,when undertaken on a prior basis,may be supportive in the acquisition of an intellectual skill.this means that the previously acquired capability may be helpful,although not essential,for the learning of a target skill

information as supportive prerequisties

verbal information may support the learning of intellectual skills by aiding the communication of instruction

cognitive startegies as supportive prerequisites

the learning of intellectual skills may be aided in a supportive sense by the use of cognitive strategies

cognitive startegies may speed the learning of intellectual skills,make them easier to recall,or aid their transfer to novel problems

attitude as supportive prerequisites

the supportive effect of positive attitudes on the learning of intellectual skills is widely recognized

learning task analysis and other learning types

type of learning outcome(p.156)

prerequisites:verbal information

to learn and store verbal information,the learner must have some basic language skills

verbal information,whether of single items or longer passage,appears to be most readily learned and retained when it occurs within a larger context of meaninful information

prerequisites:attitudes

the acquiring of particular attitudes may require the prior learning of particular intellectual skills of particular sets of information

prerequisites:motor skills

the most efficient learning comes about when part skills are practiced by themselves and later combined in practice of the total skill

instructional curriculum maps

instructional curriculum mapping simply tries to represent the functional relationships among instruction objectives,it starts by identifying the target objective and asking the question what other objectives are related to the attainment of this objective( either essential skills or supportive prerequisites)

subordinate and entry skills

the terms entry skill and subordinate objectives generally apply to the description of objectives related to a particular lesson