Principles of Instructional Design

Fourth Edition

Rober M.Gagne

Leslie J.Briggs

Walter W.Wager

pages 31-44

educational system design

models for the most comprehensive level must include analyses of needs,goals,priorities,resources,and other environmental and social factors affecting the educational system

stages in designing instructional systems

system level

analysis of needs,goals,and priorities

analysis of resources,constrains,and alternate delivery systems

determination of scope and sequence of curriculum and course,delivery system design

course level

determing course structure and sequence

analysis of course objectives

lesson level

definition of performance objectives

preparing lesson plans (or modules)

developing,selecting materials,media

assessing student performance(performance measures)

system level

teacher preparation

formative evaluation

field testing,revision

summative evaluation

installation and diffusion

resources,constraint,and alternative delivery systems

once needs and goals are identified,instructional planners need to consider issues such as:how will students learn the skills implied by the goals?from whom will they learn?where will they find the resource,materials,or help they need?what resources will it take to teach the goals?are the resources available?do we want to spend that much?can the present system do this?will instructor training be needed?what alternative system delivery system suggest themselves

teacher preparation

teachers are often skeptical of new approaches,and it is time-consuming to switch to new curricula and materials; accordingly,teachers must approach the task with a positive attitude toward the new system,teachers need to be prepared before materials are distributed in order for a new unit of instruction to be adopted

installation and diffusion

new technology is often perceived as a threat to the existing system and is often blocked by those who should use it

key steps in the planning process include

1.classifying the lesson objectives by learning type

2.listing the needed instructional events

3.choosing a medium of instruction capable of providing those events

4.incorporating appropriate conditions of learning into the prescriptions indicating how each event will be accomplished by the lesson

some events may be executed by the learner,some by the materials,and some by the teacher

part two 

basic processes in learning and instruction

the outcomes of instruction

instructional and educational goals

the basic reason for designing instruction is to make possible the attainment of a set of educational goals

educational goals are those human activities that contribute to the functioning of a society(including the functioning of an individual in the society)and that can be acquired through learning

education in a democracy,both within and without the school,should develop in each individual the knowledge,interests, ideals,habits,and powers whereby he will find his place and use that place to shap both himself and society toward ever nobler ends

knowledge,interests,ideals,habits,and power 

fall into the seven areas of 

1.health

2.command of basic skills

3.worthy home membership

4.pursuing a vocation

5.citizenship

6.worthy use of leisure

7.ethical character

goals and educational outcomes

the reflection of societal needs in educational goals is typically expressed in statements describing categories of human activity.

health.performing those activities that will maintain health

citizenship.carries out the activities of a citizen in a democratic society

educational goals are statements of the outcomes of education

it would be helpful for educational scholars to define the array of human capabilities that would make possible the kinds of activities expressed in educational goals

to design instruction,one must seek a means of identifying the human capabilities that lead to the outcomes called educational goals

courses and their objectives

the planning of instruction is often carried out for a single course rather than for larger units of a total curriculum

ambiguity in the meaning of courses with title or topic designations can readily be avoided when courses are described in terms of the objectives

通過對某課程的學習，學習者能達到xx學習目標

courses of have several objectivies,not just one

the most important difference among them is that each requires a different plan for its achievement,instruction must be differentially designed to ensure that each objective is attainable by students with the context of a course

instructional planning can be vastly simplified by assigning learning objectives to five major categories of human capabilities