Language Disorders:from Infancy through Adolescence:

Listening, Speaking, Reading, Writing, and Communicating

Rhea Paul, PhD, CCC-SLPProfessor, Yale Child Study Center

New Haven, Connecticut

Courtenay F. Norbury, PhD

Senior Research Fellow Department of Psychology Royal Holloway University of London London,England

pages 621-631

production

teaching students the SPACE mnemonic for writing stories.this device encourages them to remember to include setting elements,problems,actions,consequences,and emotions in their stories.

story map for narrative production(p.622)

setting

characters

time

place

the problem

the goal

action

reactions

an example of a set of story grammar cue cards(p.623)

card 1:setting

where and when does the story take place?who are the main characters?

card 2:problem

what happens to get the story started?what is the problem the main character must solve?

card 3:internal response

what thoughts or feeling does the main character have about the problem?what makes him or her want to do something about it?

card 4:plan

what is the main character's goal?what does he or she plan to do?what are his or her intentions?

card 5:attempt

what does the character to do carry out the plan?

card 6:consequence

what happens when the character tries to carry out the plan?is it successful or unsuccessful? how and why?what else happens when the character tries to carry out the plan?did he or she intend for that to happen?

card 7:reaction

how do the characters feel about what happened in the story?what do they think about the problem,the plan,and the result?

simple story cue cards:

characters:who

setting:where

actions:what happened?

emotions:how did they feel?

pow!tips for writing stories

pick and idea:

who is the main character?

when does the story take place?where?

what does the main character do or want to do?

what do the other characters do?

then what happens?

how does the story end?

how do each of the characters feel?

organize thoughts and notes:

does the story follow a timeline?

do events and plans cause outcomes?

does it make sense?

write some more:

add more details 

use more descriptive words 

include what characters thought and felt

expository texts

reminds us:understanding expository texts is reliant on having some background knowledge of the text's topic,so an important preparatory activity for reading these texts is foregrounding and adding to that knowledge by means of oral discussion before reading.

essential elements in strategy instruction

expository text

controlling task difficulty by sequencing materials to maintain high levels of success

interactive,small group)3-10 students) instruction(ideal group size appears to be 6 students)

teaching students to generate their own questions as they proceed through material and asking guiding questions that stimulate thinking and invite interactive responses

modeling think-alouds to make the process as clear and explicit as possible,and having students think aloud as they complete tasks

providing extended practice and feedback from both adults and peers

explicit teaching of the steps in comprehending or producing exposition,using "think sheets," mnemonics,visual organizers,and other strategies

explicit teaching of text structures

comprehending expository text

three syntactic structures common to expository texts,but uncommon in other discourse:

1.extensive premodification and/or postmodification of the head noun of the phrase.

2.multiclausal sentences with tightly orchestrated hierarchical structure so that there are several levels of subordination within a single sentence (e.g., the animals adapt by making sure that when there is food available they get and store as much of it as possible by having reservoirs for fast storage,such as the camel's hump)

3.information structured within and across sentences.

using a paraphrasing strategy:

read 

ask questions

put ideas in their own words

steps in the PAP strategy

step 1:read a paragraph

step 2:ask yourself,"what were the main idea and details of this paragraph?"

places to look,if you're stumped:

look in the first sentence

look for repetitions of the same word or words in the whole paragraph

questions to ask yourself,if you're stumped:

what is the paragraph about?

this paragraph is about_____

what does it tell me about____

it tells me ______.

step 3:put the main idea and details into your own words.

verbal organizers for identifying expository text structures

sequence(to tell what happened or how to do or make something）

first,next,then,second,third,following,finally,subsequently,from here to,before,after, eventually

enumerative(to give a list of things related to a topic and describe each)

an example,for instance,another,such as,to illustrate

cause-effect(to explain or give reasons why something happens or exists)

because,since,reasons,then,therefore,for this reason,results or effects,consequently,so,in order to,thus,hence,depends on, influences,affects,is a function of ,leads to ,produces

descriptive(to tell what something is)

is called,is,can be defined,can be interpreted,is explained,refers to,is someone who,means

problem or solution(to state a problem and other solutions)

the problem is ,a solution is ,challenges facing,proposed ways of addressing

comparison or contrast(to show likenesses and differences)

different or same,alile or disparate,similar or dissimilar,although,or,however,on the other hand,compared to ,contrasted with ,rather than,instead of ,but,yet,still

improving comprehension of expository text in students with LLD

vocabulary and preparatory set instruction before reading,including foregrounding and adding to background knowledge of the topic

oral reading by students with leteral and inferential questions asked by the teacher

presentation of relationships among ideas within the passage using graphic organizers like the ones in XX  as a postreading activity

having students write summarizes of each text read

students were taught the following strategy for writing summaries:

list key points

combine the points that go together

number the points in a logical order

reread the list in order

write each numbered point into a paragraph

visual organizers for expository text structures(p.626)

predict.scan the text for headings,boldface print,pictures,and any other information they can use to invole a preparatory set,activate background information,and generate prereading questions

organize.brainstorm their prereading questions into a set of categories of information that the passage will contain,they might schematize this,using a semantic map or visual organizer.

search.read the passage with their questions and organizer in mind,they look for the information they highlighted in their prereading questions

summarize.give an oral summary of the passage,stating the main idea,supporting ideas,and most salient details,then ask additional questions

evaluate,identify gaps in understanding,compare what was learned with what was predicted, clarify misunderstandings they encountered,and predict the topic of the next section of the passage.

three steps in the SQ3R learning strategy(p.628)

preview:recall what you know about the topic of the text;predict what it will be about

click and clunk:monitor comprehension during reading or listening by recognizing when you are "clicking" along,understanding what you read,and when you come to hard words and ideas(clunk)

get the gist:restate the most important idea in the paragraph or passage

warm-up:summarize what you've learned,and ask questions likes ones a teacher may ask on a test

ask an easy question that can be found in the text answered in one or two words

ask a harder question that requires putting information from different parts of the text together in 2-3 sentences

ask a really hard question,one that requires getting information from what you read and other things you have learned

supplementing strategy instruction with conten-oriented activities such as:

encouraging active engagement with texts by having students review notes,rewrite content, and teach it to others

encouraging retrieval practice through summarizing and retelling

explicitly teaching words from the academic word list

providing alternative sources of similar content such as newspapers,magazines,movies,videos podcasts,and other internet resources to strengthen students' knowledge about the topic of the expository,introducing them before,during,or after reading

guiding students not only to identify text structures,but to develop their own graphic organizers to summarize and review expository content,using these self-created organizers as a basis for speaking and writing about the text is especially helpful

writing expository text

the writing difficulties common to students with LLD,they include struggles with the motor act of writing,writing that is short and spars,mechanical errors in spelling and punctuation, more limited complex syntax and vocabulary,less cohesion,less sensitivity to audience,less adherence to genre,and lower overall quality.

improving writing in adolescents

teach strategies explicitly for planning,composing,revising,and editing

during planning,identify prupose,genre,audience,and characteristics(e.g.,address both sides of an argument for persuasive genre)og written product

use "inquiry" in prewriting:engage students in developing ideas,such as reading topic related material,or comparing and contrasting examples or cases

teach prewriting strategies such as prompting planning before writing,organizing ideas with visual organizers such as semantic webs

provide writers with models of each type of writing,highlighting text structures for narrative or various kinds of expository writing;have students analyze and imitate models.

encourage use of word processing as a primary tool for writing

use peer collaborative groups for planning,drafting,and revising

teach complex-sentence production;sentence combining is an especially effective tool

teach summarizing

teaching steps in the planning process explicitly,with think-alouds and encouragement for students to engage in extended dialogue with the teacher and peers during the planning process was effective in improving the writing of students with LLD

three steps planning strategy:

1:think:who will read this

why am i writing it?

what do i know about this topic

what do i want to say?

2.plan what to say,using brainstorming with teacher and peers and an organizing think sheet

3.write,then say more