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科技写作(116):段落的结构与组织 精选

已有 9219 次阅读 2013-10-27 19:16 |个人分类:科技写作|系统分类:论文交流

   段落的结构与组织

写得好的段落并不是将句子任意堆放在一起,而是有逻辑地进行组织与安排。每个段落中有两个非常重要的位置:段首句和段尾句。通常,段首句介绍段落主题,而段尾句用于总结、得出结论或强调某些重要性。

主题句一般都位于段首是因为这个位置的影响力最大。有些段落可能不止有一个主题句。如果主题句位于段尾,它可能被赋予了更重要的使命,既用于介绍下一个段落的主题,又作为本段的概要和总结。写得好的论文都将主题句放在最有影响力的位置,读者通过简单地浏览这些主题句就可以了解论文内容,不必完整地阅读全文。

段落的中间部分的组织和撰写取决于段落所要达到的目的:既可以按照信息的重要性从小到大或从大到小排列,也可以按照发表顺序或时间顺序排列。有的段落还可以按照比较与对比、提出问题与解决问题的方式来组织。

例:Volatile organic compounds (VOCs)are emitted from a variety of manmade and natural sources. Manmade sourcesinclude motor vehicles, chemical plants, refineries, factories, consumer andcommercial products, and other industrial sources. Natural sources responsiblefor biogenic VOC emissions include oak, citrus, eucalyptus, pine, spruce,maple, hickory, fir, and cottonwood. The overall relative contributions ofmanmade versus natural sources of VOCs have not been clearly established, butthe relative contributions of these source groups vary depending on geography.

 这段话的主题是 “VOCs”。段落的结构方式,即其余句子的排列顺序不是任意的,而是按照先“manmade后“natural的顺序行进。

 

练习

1 该段文字是关于谷氨酸受体。虽然段落有主题句,但是其余的句子并没有按照与主题句的逻辑关系依次推进。在主题句后加入一个符合读者期望的句子。(看了主题句后读者会期望了解什么呢?)改写第二句,使其与第三句平行。

1 Ionotropic glutamate receptors fall into twogeneral categories (7, 8). 2 WhenNMDA receptors are activated by N-methyl-D-aspartate (MNDA), ion channels areopened, allowing ions to rush into the cell and thus cause an excitatorypostsynaptic potential. 3 non NMDAreceptors like PCP bind to kainate and quisqualate only and prevent ion flowand an excitatory postsynaptic potential, even in the presence of NMDA.

 

2 该段文字是关于鲑鱼的迁徙。虽然第一句和第二句描述了鲑鱼的迁徙可能利用的两种方法,但段落缺少主题句。补充主题句,概括出整个段落的主题(鲑鱼在秋季返回途中所利用的不同的方法)。以主题作为主题句的主语。此外,让第二句和第三句平行。

1 Salmon may use a magnetic or sun compass toorient themselves. 2 As described byBrown et al. (15), olfactory cues learned as smelts any also help salmon tofind the river and tributary of their birth .3 Salmo may reenter fresh water inspring, summer, or fall, but spawning occurs in the fall, and the life cycle ofthe salmon begins anew.

 

3 检查该段文字中单词的位置,保持叙述角度一致(保持每个句子的主语一致); 在第三句的句首增加过渡词,指明第三句与第四句的逻辑关系; 用正确的平行结构表达相对应的思想。

1 InterlecukinⅠ(IL-I) is a mediator produced byactivated macrophages and many other cell types (1). 2 IL-I initiates inflammation and thus stimulates various cells. 3 InT-cell activation, one of the co signals is IL-I. 4 IL-I plays a role in activation B cells and the production ofacute phase proteins, muscle catabolism, bone resorption, and fever isstimulated by ILI.

 

参考答案

      1.

1. Ionotropicglutamate receptors fall into two general categories (7, 8). 1’Thesereceptors are NMDA receptors or non-NMDA receptors. 2NMDA receptors areactivated by N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA). 2’Upon activation, ion channels are opened, allowing ions to rushinto the cell and thus cause an excitatory postsynaptic potential (Fig. 1). 3In contrast, non-NMDA receptors like PCP bind to kainate andquisqualate only and prevent ion flow and an excitatory postsynaptic potential,even in the presence of NMDA. 4 Thus,PCP acts as a strong noncompetitive antagonist of NMDA.

主题句是有关glutamate receptor的两个分类, 读完第一句后, 读者期望找到是哪两个类别. 句1’满足了主题句制造的期望. 句2修改为与句3平行. 句2也分为两个部分, 把两个不同的思想分为两个句子表达.

 

2.

1’Salmon use different methods to find theirway during their homeward journey in the fall. 1 Salmon may use a magnetic or sun compass to orient themselves. 2 As described by Brown et al. (15), they may also use olfactory cues learned assmelts to find the river and tributary of their birth. 3 Salmon may reenter fresh water in spring, summer, or fall, but spawningoccurs in the fall, and the life cycle of the salmon begins anew.

主题句指出了句子的信息, “the different methods salmon use to findtheir way during their homeward journey in the fall.” 主题是各句的主语, 从而使得整个段落观点具一致性. 第2句与第1句平行.

 

3.

1 lnterleukin I (IL-I) is a mediator produced byactivated macrophages and many other cell types (1). 2 IL-I initiatesinflammation and thus stimulates various cells. 3 IL-I is a co-signal in T-cell activation. 4 Furthermore, IL-I playsa role in activating B cells and instimulating the production of acute phase proteins, muscle catabolism, boneresorption, and fever.

观点贯穿整个段落. 第4句的开始加了一个转接词以指出与第3句的逻辑关系, 并且平等的思想以正确的平行句式表达(第4句: in stimulating).

 

摘编自《科技写作与交流》(任胜利译. 科学出版社,2012年出版)

 



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http://www.westminster-abbey.org/
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Westminster Abbey is also the place where some of the most significant people in the nation's history are buried or commemorated. Taken as a whole the tombs and memorials comprise the most significant single collection of monumental sculpture anywhere in the United Kingdom.
-------------------
Westminster Abbey is steeped in more than a thousand years of history. Benedictine monks first came to this site in the middle of the tenth century, establishing a tradition of daily worship which continues to this day.
The Abbey has been the coronation church since 1066 and is the final resting place of seventeen monarchs.
The present church, begun by Henry III in 1245, is one of the most important Gothic buildings in the country, with the medieval shrine of an Anglo-Saxon saint still at its heart.
A treasure house of paintings, stained glass, pavements, textiles and other artefacts, Westminster Abbey is also the place where some of the most significant people in the nation's history are buried or commemorated. Taken as a whole the tombs and memorials comprise the most significant single collection of monumental sculpture anywhere in the United Kingdom.
The Library and Muniment Room houses the important (and growing) collections of archives, printed books and manuscripts belonging to the Dean and Chapter of Westminster, providing a centre for their study and for research into all aspects of the Abbey's long and varied history.
-------------------------
http://www.westminster-abbey.org/our-history/people/sir-isaac-newton
Isaac Newton was born at Woolsthorpe in the parish of Colsterworth, Lincolnshire on Christmas Day 1642, only son of Isaac, a farmer, and his wife Hannah (Ayscough). His father died before his birth and his mother married again and had three more children. He was educated in Grantham and at Trinity College Cambridge and became a Fellow of Trinity in 1667 and was Lucasian Professor from 1669 to 1702. Elected a Fellow of the Royal Society in 1672, Newton served as its President from 1705 to 1727. He became Master of the Mint in 1699 and was knighted in April 1705.
Newton is most commonly known for his conception of the law of universal gravitation, but his other discoveries and inventions in mathematics (e.g. the binomial theorem, differential and integral calculus), optics, mechanics, and astronomy place him at the very forefront of all scientists. His study and understanding of light, the invention of the reflecting telescope (1668), and his revelation in his Principia of the mathematical ordering of the universe are all represented on his monument in Westminster Abbey.
Newton died unmarried at Kensington on 20 March 1727 and was buried in Westminster Abbey on 28 March. Before the funeral his body lay in state in the Jerusalem Chamber (a room in the Deanery) and his coffin was followed to its grave by most of the Fellows of the Royal Society. The Lord Chancellor, the Dukes of Montrose and Roxburgh and the Earls of Pembroke, Sussex and Macclesfield were pall bearers. The Hon.Sir Michael Newton was chief mourner (London Journal 8 April 1727)
Newton's grave is in front of the choir screen, close to his monument. The Latin inscription on it reads:
Hic depositum est, quod mortale fuit Isaaci Newtoni.
This may be translated as:
'Here lies that which was mortal of Isaac Newton'.
Newton's Monument
Newton's monument stands in the nave against the choir screen, to the north of the entrance to the choir. It was executed by the sculptor Michael Rysbrack (1694-1770) to the designs of the architect William Kent (1685-1748) and dates from 1731.
The monument is of white and grey marble. Its base bears a Latin inscription (see below) and supports a sarcophagus with large scroll feet and a relief panel. The latter depicts boys using instruments related to Newton's mathematical and optical work (including the telescope and prism) and his activity as Master of the Mint. Above the sarcophagus is a reclining figure of Newton, in classical costume, his right elbow resting on several books representing his great works. They are labelled 'Divinity', 'Chronology', 'Opticks' [1704] and 'Philo. Prin. Math' [Philosophia Naturalis Principia Mathematica, 1686-7)]. With his left hand he points to a scroll with a mathematical design shown on it (the 'converging series'), held by two standing winged boys. The painting on this scroll had been erased or cleaned off in the early 19th century and was re-painted in 1977 from details in Newton's manuscripts. The background is a pyramid on which is a celestial globe with the signs of the Zodiac, of the constellations, and with the path of the comet of 1680. On top of the globe sits a figure of Astronomy leaning upon a book.
The monument originally stood out against the flat front of the choir screen, but was enclosed within the present decorative arch when Edward Blore re-modelled the screen in 1834.
Inscription
The inscription reads:
"H. S. E. ISAACUS NEWTON Eques Auratus, / Qui, animi vi prope divinâ, / Planetarum Motus, Figuras, / Cometarum semitas, Oceanique Aestus. Suâ Mathesi facem praeferente / Primus demonstravit: / Radiorum Lucis dissimilitudines, / Colorumque inde nascentium proprietates, / Quas nemo antea vel suspicatus erat, pervestigavit. / Naturae, Antiquitatis, S. Scripturae, / Sedulus, sagax, fidus Interpres / Dei O. M. Majestatem Philosophiâ asseruit, / Evangelij Simplicitatem Moribus expressit. / Sibi gratulentur Mortales, / Tale tantumque exstitisse / HUMANI GENERIS DECUS. / NAT. XXV DEC. A.D. MDCXLII. OBIIT. XX. MAR. MDCCXXVI"
This can be translated as follows:
"Here is buried Isaac Newton, Knight, who by a strength of mind almost divine, and mathematical principles peculiarly his own, explored the course and figures of the planets, the paths of comets, the tides of the sea, the dissimilarities in rays of light, and, what no other scholar has previously imagined, the properties of the colours thus produced. Diligent, sagacious and faithful, in his expositions of nature, antiquity and the holy Scriptures, he vindicated by his philosophy the majesty of God mighty and good, and expressed the simplicity of the Gospel in his manners. Mortals rejoice that there has existed such and so great an ornament of the human race! He was born on 25th December 1642, and died on 20th March 1726".
The date of death is given in contemporary Old Style dating, which in present dating is 1727.
The poet Alexander Pope had written an epitaph for Newton but this was not allowed to be put on the monument in the Abbey "Nature and Nature's laws lay hid in night: God said, Let Newton be! and all was light".
Newton's niece Catherine Barton married John Conduitt, whose monument is at the opposite end of the nave to Isaac's. Conduitt commissioned the Newton monument.
------------------------
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Charles Robert Darwin was born in Shrewsbury on 12 February 1809, son of Robert Waring Darwin (1766-1848) and Susannah, daughter of Josiah Wedgwood. He studied with his brother Erasmus at Edinburgh University but disliked the idea of following in his father鈥檚 footsteps as a doctor. At Cambridge University he became very much interested in natural history and sailed on the ship HMS Beagle in 1831 to South America and the Galapagos islands. In 1839 he married his cousin Emma Wedgwood and they went to live at Downe, a small village in Kent. His famous work 鈥淭he Origin of Species by natural selection鈥� was published in 1859 and he continued working although his health was often poor. He died at Down House on 19 April 1882.
Burial
The Dean of Westminster, George Granville Bradley, was away in France when he received a telegram forwarded from the President of the Royal Society in London saying 鈥溾€t would be acceptable to a very large number of our fellow-countrymen of all classes and opinions that our illustrious countryman, Mr Darwin, should be buried in Westminster Abbey鈥�. The Dean recalled 鈥� I did not hesitate as to my answer and telegraphed direct鈥hat my assent would be cheerfully given鈥�. The body lay overnight in the Abbey, in the small chapel of St Faith, and on the morning of 26 April the coffin was escorted by the family and eminent mourners into the Abbey. The pall-bearers included Sir Joseph Hooker, Alfred Russel Wallace, James Russell Lowell (U.S. Ambassador), and William Spottiswoode (President of the Royal Society).
The burial service was held in the Lantern, conducted by Canon Prothero, with anthems sung by the choir. The chief mourners then followed the coffin into the north aisle of the Nave where Darwin was buried next to the eminent scientist Sir John Herschel, and a few feet away from Sir Isaac Newton. The simple inscription on his grave reads
鈥淐HARLES ROBERT DARWIN BORN 12 FEBRUARY 1809. DIED 19 APRIL 1882鈥�.
Although an agnostic, Darwin was greatly respected by his contemporaries and the Bishop of Carlisle, Harvey Goodwin, in a memorial sermon preached in the Abbey on the Sunday following the funeral, said 鈥淚 think that the interment of the remains of Mr Darwin in Westminster Abbey is in accordance with the judgment of the wisest of his countrymen鈥t would have been unfortunate if anything had occurred to give weight and currency to the foolish notion which some have diligently propagated, but for which Mr Darwin was not responsible, that there is a necessary conflict between a knowledge of Nature and a belief in God鈥︹€�. A later, widely believed, rumour of a 鈥渄eathbed conversion鈥� to Christianity was denied by his daughter, who was actually present at his death.
A bronze memorial, with a life-sized relief bust, was erected by his family in the north choir aisle, near to the grave, in 1888. The sculptor was Sir J.E. Boehm. The inscription just says simply DARWIN.
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1/1 | 鎬昏:29 | 棣栭〉 | 涓婁竴椤� | 涓嬩竴椤� | 鏈〉 | 璺宠浆

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